Wetlands of Mountainous Regions

Thammineni Pullaiah is Professor of Botany (Retired), Department of Botany, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, India. He was President of Indian Botanical Society, President of the Indian Association for Angiosperm Taxonomy, and a member of Species Survival Commission of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). He has authored 65 books, edited 40 books, and published over 340 research papers.

• About the Editor xiiiList of Contributors xvPreface xxi1 Wetlands of Eastern Himalaya: Biodiversity, Livelihoods, and Conservation 1Kitichate Sridith1.1 Introduction 11.2 Wetlands Categories of the Eastern Himalayas 21.2.1 The Valley Bottom Wetlands 21.2.2 Highland Bogs, Fens, and Marshes of the Eastern Himalayas 51.3 Floristic Composition of the Shallow Fresh Marsh, Seasonally Flooded Flat Basins, Poor Fen, and Freshwater Meadows of Eastern Himalaya Wetlands 111.4 Spring Wetlands on the Lower Slope Areas of the Hillside in the Eastern Himalaya 121.5 Riverine and Floodplain Wetlands Above 2500 M in the Eastern Himalayas 141.6 The Livelihood in Wetlands of the Eastern Himalaya and the Conservation Measures 171.6.1 Livelihood of the Rivers/Streams Wetlands 181.6.2 The Conservation Procedures That May Harm Wetlands and Their Biodiversity in the Eastern Himalayas 181.7 Conservation Measures 18References 192 Wetlands of Nepal: Biodiversity, Livelihoods, and Conservation Initiatives 25Krishna K. Shrestha, Sanjeev K. Rai, Rabindra Maharjan, and Prabina Dahal2.1 Introduction 252.1.1 Nepal’s Wetland Diversity 262.1.2 Ramsar Convention and Wetlands in Nepal 262.2 Wetland Biodiversity 282.2.1 Floral Diversity 282.2.1.1 High Hill Ramsar Wetlands 282.2.1.2 Mid Hill Ramsar Wetlands 282.2.1.3 Lowland Ramsar Wetlands 282.2.2 Faunal Diversity 322.2.2.1 High Hill Ramsar Wetlands 322.2.2.2 Mid Hill Ramsar Wetlands 332.2.2.3 Lowland Ramsar Wetlands 332.3 Wetlands in Nepal 372.3.1 Wetlands in Mountains (or High Hills) of Nepal 382.3.1.1 Gokyo and Associated Wetlands (Solukhumbu District, Koshi Province, Eastern Nepal) 382.3.1.2 Gosainkunda and Associated Wetlands (Rasuwa District, Bagmati Province, Central Nepal) 382.3.1.3 Phoksundo Wetland (Dolpa District, Karnali Province, Western Nepal) 412.3.1.4 Rara Wetland (Mugu District, Karnali Province, Western Nepal) 412.3.2 Wetlands in the Mid Hills of Nepal 442.3.2.1 Mai Pokhari Wetland (Ilam District, Koshi Province, Eastern Nepal) 442.3.2.2 Lake Cluster of Pokhara Valley (Kaski District, Gandaki Province, Central Nepal) 462.3.3 Wetlands in the Low Land (Tarai) of Nepal 472.3.3.1 Koshi Tappu Wetland (Sunsari District, Koshi Province, Eastern Nepal) 472.3.3.2 Beeshazar Wetland and Associated Lakes (Chitwan District, Bagmati Province, Central Nepal) 492.3.3.3 Jagdishpur Lake Wetland (Kapilvastu District, Lumbini Province, Central Nepal) 512.3.3.4 Ghodaghodi Lake Complex (Kailali District, Sudur Paschim Province, Western Nepal) 522.3.4 Wetlands of National Importance 522.4 Livelihood Issues Associated with the Wetlands 572.4.1 Wetlands and Livelihood Incentives 572.4.1.1 Provisioning Services 572.4.1.2 Regulating Services 592.4.1.3 Supporting Services 592.4.1.4 Cultural Services 592.4.2 Wetlands and Tourism Industry 592.5 Threats to Wetlands 602.5.1 Alien Invasive Species 602.5.2 Climate Change 602.5.3 Lack of Science-Based Knowledge 612.5.4 Infrastructures and Recreational Activities 612.5.5 Threats to Cultural Sites 612.6 Wetland Conservation Initiatives 612.6.1 Wetland Management Practices 622.6.2 Wetland Conservation Policies in Nepal 632.6.3 Wetland-Related Legislations 632.6.4 Wetland-Related Conventions and Commitments 632.7 Recommendations and Conclusion 65GIS Map Credit 66Photo Credit 663.A Common Flora (Plant Diversity) in and Around Ramsar Wetlands of Nepal 673.B Common Fauna (Animal Diversity) in and Around Ramsar Wetlands of Nepal 75References 803 Wetlands of Himalayan and Hindu Kush Regions of Pakistan 85Andleeb Batool, Naseeba Mustafavi, Asia Parveen, Maryam Mukhtar, Abdul Jabbar, and Dania Razzaq3.1 Introduction 853.2 Geographical Setting 863.3 Biodiversity 873.3.1 Mammals 873.3.2 Birds 913.3.3 Fishes 923.3.4 The Herpetofauna 923.4 Flora 933.5 Threats 953.5.1 Excessive Resource Harvesting 953.5.2 Illegal Hunting and Retaliatory Killings 953.5.3 Decreasing Water Quality 953.5.4 Ill-Managed Tourism 953.5.5 Potential Climate Change 963.6 Conservation Strategies 963.7 Gaps in Conservation Efforts 96References 974 Wetlands of Armenia: Biodiversity, Livelihoods, and Conservation 103Karen Aghababyan, Janna Akopian, Susanna Hakobyan, Mark Kalashian, Astghik Ghazaryan, Levon Aghasyan, Samvel Pipoyan, Noushig Zarikian, and Karen Jenderedjian4.1 Overview 1034.2 Biodiversity 1044.2.1 Wetlands of Ararat Plain 1044.2.2 Grassy Marshes 1114.3 Human Factors 1204.3.1 Water Acquisition 1204.3.2 Drainage of Wetlands 1214.3.3 Pollution of Wetlands 1224.3.4 Reed Harvesting and Arsons 1224.3.5 Livestock Grazing 1224.3.6 Waterbird Harvesting 1224.4 Conservation 123References 1245 Wetlands of Georgia 129Guram Aleksidze, Givi Japaridze, and Zurab Manvelidze5.1 Kolkheti Landscapes and Their Condition 1295.2 Agroclimatic Characteristics of Kolkheti Lowland 1305.3 Soils of Kolkheti 1315.4 Wetland Landscape as an Economic Resource Phenomenon 1315.4.1 Peat Deposits 1325.4.2 Swamps of Kolkheti 1325.4.3 Biodiversity of Protected and Recreation Areas of Kolkheti 1345.4.3.1 Biodiversity of Kolkheti National Park 1345.4.3.2 Biodiversity of Kobuleti Protected Areas 1385.4.3.3 Biodiversity of Shekvetili Dendrological Park (Guria, Ozurgeti) 1415.4.3.4 Protected Areas of Colchic Rainforests 1415.4.3.5 Kintrishi Protected Areas 1435.4.3.6 Biodiversity of Protected Areas of Colchic Temperate Rainforests 1435.4.3.7 Endemic Plant Species Protected Areas of Colchic Rainforests 1495.5 The Future of Kolkheti Wetlands: Development Prospects 1525.6 Livelihood of Kolkheti Lowland 153References 1546 Wetlands of Mountainous Regions of Slovakia: Biodiversity, Livelihoods, and Conservation 157Ján Černecký, Jana Špulerová, Viktória Ďuricová, and Ján Kadlečík6.1 Introduction 1576.2 Legislative Protection of Wetlands in Slovakia 1596.2.1 Protection of Wetlands at National Level 1596.2.2 Protection of Wetlands by Natura 2000 Protected Area Network 1596.3 Protection of Wetlands by International Treaties 1616.4 List and Description of Wetlands in Mountainous Areas of Slovakia 1656.4.1 Vo Aquatic Habitats 1656.4.2 Br Non-forested Riparian Vegetation 1676.4.3 Kr Shrub and Bush Habitats 1686.4.4 Al Alpine Vegetation 1696.4.5 Lk Meadows and Pastures 1696.4.6 Ra Peatland Habitats 1706.4.7 Pr Springs 1726.4.8 Ls Forests 1736.5 Conservation Status of Wetlands in Mountainous Areas of Slovakia 1746.6 Threats and Management of Wetlands in Mountainous Areas of Slovakia 1746.6.1 Changes in Hydrological Conditions Due to Drainage, Abstraction, and Hydropower Plant Construction 1746.6.2 Erosion and Sedimentation 1756.6.3 Agriculture and Forestry 1766.6.4 Transport Infrastructure and Constructions 1766.6.5 Tourism and Recreation 1766.6.6 Pollution 1766.6.7 Alien Invasive Species 1776.7 Management and Restoration of Wetlands in Slovakia 1776.8 Determination of Priorities and Protection Objectives for Habitats and Species of European Importance 1816.8.1 Priorities for Determining Measures and Management for Species and Habitats of European Importance 1816.8.2 Conservation Objectives for Habitats and Species of European Importance in Sites of European Importance 1816.8.3 Management Measures for Habitats and Habitats of Species of European Importance 1816.9 Contribution of Slovak Mountain Wetlands to Livelihood 182References 1837 Wetlands of Mountainous Region of Bosnia and Herzegovina 187Barudanović Senka, Mašić Ermin, and Macanović Armin7.1 Introduction 1877.2 Distribution and Factors of Formation of Peatland Ecosystems 1887.2.1 Characteristics of the Peatland Ecosystem in the B&H Mountains 1907.2.2 Basic Ecological and Phytocenological Characteristics of Peatlands in Bosnia and Herzegovina 1917.3 Overview of Abiotic and Biotic Characteristics of Mountain Peatlands in Bosnia and Herzegovina 1947.3.1 Abiotic and Biotic Characteristics of the Peatlands in Bijambare 1947.3.2 Abiotic and Biotic Characteristics of the Peatlands on Mt. Zvijezda 1957.3.3 Abiotic and Biotic Characteristics of the Peatlands on Mt. Vranica 1967.4 Spectrum of Indicator Values of Peatland Ecosystems in Bosnia and Herzegovina 1987.5 Overview of Algae Diversity in Peatlands of Bosnia and Herzegovina 2007.6 Pressures on the Peatland Ecosystems of Bosnia and Herzegovina 2017.7 Principles of Ecological Restoration and Conservation of Peatland Ecosystems 203References 2048 Wetlands of Mountainous Regions of Mexico 207José Luis Marín-Muñiz and Sergio A. Zamora Castro8.1 Introduction 2078.2 Location of Mexico 2088.3 Importance of Wetlands 2088.4 Common Issues Affecting Wetlands Located in Mexican Mountains 2158.5 Conclusions 215References 2159 Mountain Bogs of Costa Rica: Ecological Dynamics, Biogeography, Diversity, and Conservation 219Gerardo Avalos, Rafael Acuña-Castillo, José Esteban Jiménez, Bert Kohlmann, Gerardo Umaña- Villalobos, Paula Calderón-Mesén, Ricardo Sánchez-Calderón, and Víctor Acosta-Chaves9.1 Introduction 2199.2 Distribution of Mountain Bogs and Characterization of Their Plant Diversity 2209.3 Biogeography of the Talamanca Mountain Range 2289.4 Plant Biogeography 2299.5 Structure of Plant Communities 2309.6 Birds 2319.7 Amphibians and Reptiles 2349.7.1 Salamanders 2349.7.2 Anurans 2349.7.3 Reptiles 2359.7.4 Mammals 2369.7.5 Small Terrestrial Insectivores 2369.7.6 Small-and Medium-Sized Herbivores 2369.7.7 Bats 2379.7.8 Large Herbivores 2379.8 Predators 2399.8.1 Aquatic Macroinvertebrates 2409.8.2 Flying Insects 2409.9 Limnological Properties of Mountain Bogs 2419.10 Biogeographic Importance of Mountain Bogs as Record Keepers of Past Glaciations 2419.11 Ecological Role of Mountain Bogs 2429.12 Impact of Climate Change 2439.13 Management and Conservation of Mountain Bogs 244References 24510 Wetlands of Mountain Regions of Bolivia: Landscapes, Types, Conservation, and Livelihoods 255Alejandra I. Domic, Oscar Plata, and Mónica Moraes R.10.1 Introduction 25510.2 Wetlands’ Landscapes and Processes in High Andes of Bolivia 25610.2.1 Lacustrine Wetlands 25710.2.2 Riparian Wetlands 25710.2.3 Palustrine Wetlands 25810.3 Vegetation Patterns and Representative Biotic Species 25910.4 Natural Processes in High Mountain Wetlands and Conservation 26410.5 Conservation of Andean Wetlands 26710.5.1 Conservation Units and Protected Areas 26810.5.2 Ramsar Sites 26910.6 Biodiversity Used by Local Communities 26910.6.1 Opportunities and Challenges for People and Livelihoods in Montane Wetlands 270References 27111 Mountain Wetlands of Argentina 277Rubén D. Quintana, Elena Abraham, Yanina Arzamendia, Luis Epele, Clara Rubio, Jorge L. Baldo, Verónica Rojo, Cecilia Rubio, Natalia Solís, and Patricia Kandus11.1 Introduction 27711.2 Wetland Regions and Subregions of Argentina 27911.3 High Andean and Puna Wetlands Region 27911.3.1 Vegas, Shallow Lakes, and Salt Flats of the Puna Subregion 27911.3.1.1 Physical– Environmental Characterization 27911.3.1.2 Types of Wetlands 27911.3.1.3 Biodiversity 28211.3.1.4 Contributions to People 28311.3.1.5 Threats and Conservation Trends 28411.3.1.6 Protected Areas 28511.3.2 High Andean Vegas and Shallow Lakes Subregion 28511.3.2.1 Physical– Environmental Characterization 28511.3.2.2 Types of Wetlands 28611.3.2.3 Biodiversity 28911.3.2.4 Contributions to People 28911.3.2.5 Threats and Conservation Trends 29011.3.2.6 Protected Areas 29011.4 Mountain Pre-Andean and Sub-Andean Wetlands Region 29111.4.1 Physical– Environmental Characterization 29111.4.2 Types of Wetlands 29111.4.3 Biodiversity 29211.4.4 Contributions to People 29311.4.5 Threats and Conservation Trends 29411.4.6 Protected Areas 29611.5 Patagonian Wetlands Region 29711.5.1 Lakes, Streams, and Mallines of the Patagonian Andes Subregion 29711.5.1.1 Physical– Environmental Characterization 29711.5.1.2 Types of Wetlands 29711.5.1.3 Biodiversity 29811.5.1.4 Contributions to People 29911.5.1.5 Threats and Conservation Trends 29911.5.1.6 Protected Areas 29911.6 Final Remarks 301References 30312 Wetlands in the Mountain Region of Serbia: Biodiversity, Livelihoods, and Conservation 313Imre Krizmanić, Dragana Jenacǩović Gocić, Dimitrije Radisǐć, Biljana Panjković, Ranko Peric, Sara Pavkov, Nenad Sekulic, and Milica Rat12.1 Introduction 31312.2 Biodiversity 31412.2.1 Floristic and Vegetation Diversity, Habitat Types 31412.2.2 Animal Diversity 32112.2.2.1 Diversity of Amphibians and Reptiles 32112.2.2.2 Diversity of Birds 32712.3 Livelihoods 32912.4 Nature Conservation 33012.4.1 Threatment and Protection of Habitat Types in Wetlands 33012.4.2 Ecological Network 33312.4.3 Threatment and Conservation of Plant Species 33412.4.4 Threatment and Conservation of Amphibians 33412.4.5 Threatment and Conservation of Reptiles 33612.4.6 Threat Factors and Conservative Measures for Mountain Wetlands 33712.5 Conclusion 338References 339Regulations 349Index 351