Water Engineering

NAZIH K. SHAMMAS is currently a consultant, book editor and author. He has been an environmental expert, researcher, professor, and consultant for more than 40 years. He was Dean and Director at the Lenox Institute of Water Technology and consultant to Krofta Engineering Corporation as well as the recipient of a Block Grant from the University of Michigan, First Award for best thesis of the year from the Sigma Xi Society, Commendation from ABET, and the GCC Prize for Best Environmental Work. Dr Shammas is included for more than 20 years in 5 of the Who's Who Publications. He is the author of over 250 publications and 20 environmental engineering books. LAWRENCE K. WANG is currently a consultant to industries, municipalities, and the US Federal and local governments. He has been a facility manager, design engineer, inventor, professor, and book editor for more than 45 years. He was acting president of the Lenox Institute of Water Technology and Engineering Director of Krofta Engineering Corporation, as well as a recipient of the 5-Star Innovative Engineering Award, the NYWEA Kenneth Research Award, and the Korean WPCA Engineering Award. Dr Wang is an inventor of 29 US and foreign patents, and an author of 700+ scientific papers and 40+ engineering books. He is listed in the Who's Who in America and Who's Who of the World.

• Preface xviiAcknowledgments xix1 Introduction to Water Systems 1 1.1 Components of Water Systems 21.2 Required Capacity 21.3 Sources of Water Supply 31.4 Rainwater 41.5 Surface Water 51.6 Groundwater 61.7 Purification Works 91.8 Transmission Works 121.9 Distribution Works 121.10 Water Systems Management 151.11 Individual Water Systems 17Problems/Questions 18References 192 Water Sources: Surface Water 21 2.1 Sources of Surface Water 212.2 Safe Yield of Streams 242.3 Storage as a Function of Draft and Runoff 242.4 Design Storage 252.5 Loss by Evaporation, Seepage, and Silting 272.6 Area and Volume of Reservoirs 312.7 Management of Catchment Areas 322.8 Reservoir Siting 332.9 Reservoir Management 332.10 Dams and Dikes 342.11 Spillways 362.12 Intakes 372.13 Diversion Works 382.14 Collection of Rainwater 39Problems/Questions 41References 423 Water Sources: Groundwater 45 3.1 Porosity and Effective Porosity 453.2 Permeability 473.3 Groundwater Geology 473.4 Groundwater Situation in The United States 483.5 Types of Aquifers 483.6 Groundwater Movement 493.7 Darcy's Law 493.8 Aquifer Characteristics 503.9 Well Hydraulics 523.10 Nonsteady Radial Flow 523.11 Prediction of Drawdown 603.12 Multiple-Well Systems 633.13 Aquifer Boundaries 673.14 Characteristics of Wells 703.15 Yield of a Well 713.16 Well Design 733.17 Well Construction 743.18 Evaluation of Aquifer Behavior 773.19 Groundwater Quality Management 783.20 Groundwater Under the Direct Influence of Surface Water 79Problems/Questions 84References 854 Quantities of Water Demand 87 4.1 Design Period 874.2 Design Population 884.3 Water Consumption 924.4 Variations or Patterns of Water Demand 964.5 Demand and Drainage Loads of Buildings 104Problems/Questions 106References 1065 Water Hydraulics, Transmission, and Appurtenances 109 5.1 Fluid Mechanics, Hydraulics, and Water Transmission 1095.2 Fluid Transport 1215.3 Capacity and Size of Conduits 1525.4 Multiple Lines 1545.5 Cross-Sections 1555.6 Structural Requirements 1555.7 Location 1565.8 Materials of Construction 1595.9 Appurtenances 1605.10 Additional Hydraulics Topics 164Problems/Questions 172References 1786 Water Distribution Systems: Components, Design, and Operation 181 6.1 Distribution Systems 1816.2 System Components 1836.3 System Capacity 1856.4 System Pressure 1856.5 Field Performance of Existing Systems 1866.6 Office Studies of Pipe Networks 1876.7 Industrial Water Systems 1976.8 Management, Operation, and Maintenance of Distribution Systems 1976.9 Practical Design and Analysis of Water Distribution Systems 202Problems/Questions 205References 2107 Water Distribution Systems: Modeling and Computer Applications 213 7.1 Watergems Software 2137.2 Water Demand Patterns 2137.3 Energy Losses and Gains 2147.4 Pipe Networks 2157.5 Network Analysis 2167.6 Water Quality Modeling 2167.7 Automated Optimization 2187.8 Practical Applications of Computer-Aided Water Supply System Analysis 232Problems/Questions 233References 2408 Pumping, Storage, and Dual Water Systems 241 8.1 Pumps and Pumping Stations 2418.2 Pump Characteristics 2418.3 Service Storage 2488.4 Location of Storage 2518.5 Elevation of Storage 2518.6 Types of Distributing Reservoirs 2518.7 Dual Water Supply Systems 2578.8 Raw Water Intake Structures and Raw Water Pumping Wells 260Problems/Questions 262References 2669 Cross-Connection Control 267 9.1 Introduction 2679.2 Public Health Significance of Cross-Connections 2689.3 Theory of Backflow and Backsiphonage 2769.4 Methods and Devices for the Prevention of Backflow and Backsiphonage 2809.5 Reduced Pressure Principle Backflow Preventer 2859.6 Administration of a Cross-Connection Control Program 2899.7 Pressure and Leakage Tests of Water Mains 291Problems/Questions 293References 29510 Water Quality Characteristics and Drinking Water Standards 297 10.1 Objectives of Water-Quality Management 29710.2 Natural Available Water Resources 29710.3 Public Health Issues and Drinking Water Treatment 29810.4 Physical Characteristics and Constituents 30010.5 Chemical Characteristics and Constituents 30110.6 Biological Characteristics and Constituents 30710.7 Radiological Characteristics and Constituents 31010.8 Drinking Water Quality Standards 31110.9 Industrial Water Quality Standards 31310.10 Bathing Waters 31710.11 Fishing and Shellfish Waters 31710.12 Irrigation Waters 31910.13 Quality of Water from Various Sources 31910.14 Good Quality Water 32010.15 Self-Purification and Storage 32010.16 Objectives of Water Examination 32110.17 Methods of Examination 32110.18 Standard Tests 32210.19 Expression of Analytical Results 32210.20 Tapping a Source of Water 322Problems/Questions 323References 32311 Water Treatment Systems 325 11.1 Purpose of Water Treatment 32511.2 Treatment of Raw Water 32511.3 Unit Operations and Unit Processes 32811.4 Gas Transfer 33011.5 Ion Transfer 33011.6 Solute Stabilization 33311.7 Solids Transfer 33311.8 Nutrient or Molecular Transfer and Interfacial Contact 33811.9 Disinfection 33911.10 Miscellaneous Operations/Processes 34011.11 Coordination of Unit Operations/Processes 34011.12 Selection of Water Treatment Technologies 34111.13 Control of Turbidity, Color, and Biological Contamination 34211.14 Organic Contaminant Removal 34311.15 Inorganic Contaminant Removal and Control 34511.16 Water Renovation 34811.17 Treatment Kinetics 35011.18 Monitoring Water Quality 35111.19 Distribution to Customers 35211.20 Glossary of Water Treatment Systems 352Problems/Questions 359References 36012 Chemicals Feeding, Mixing, and Flocculation 363 12.1 Introduction 36312.2 Handling, Storing, and Feeding Chemicals 36312.3 Rapid Mixing 36712.4 Rapid Mixing and Slow Flocculation 37212.5 Flocculation 37312.6 Mixing and Stirring Devices 37312.7 Flocculator Performance 39112.8 Costs 393Problems/Questions 394References 39513 Aeration, Gas Transfer, and Oxidation 397 13.1 Sources of Gases in Water 39713.2 Objectives of Gas Transfer 39713.3 Absorption and Desorption of Gases 39813.4 Rates of Gas Absorption and Desorption 40013.5 Types of Aerators 40213.6 Factors Governing Gas Transfer 40513.7 Design of Gravity Aerators 40513.8 Design of Fixed-Spray Aerators 40613.9 Design of Movable-Spray Aerators 40613.10 Design of Injection Aerators 40713.11 Mechanical Aerators 40813.12 Oxidation for Removal of Dissolved Iron and Manganese 40813.13 Removal of Specific Gases 41113.14 Removal of Odors and Tastes 414Problems/Questions 414References 41514 Coagulation 417 14.1 Introduction 41714.2 The Colloidal State 41714.3 Colloidal Structure and Stability of Colloids 41814.4 Destabilization of Colloids 42114.5 Influencing Factors 42314.6 Coagulants 42514.7 Coagulation Control 432Problems/Questions 435Special Reference 436References 43615 Screening, Sedimentation, and Flotation 439 15.1 Treatment Objectives 43915.2 Screening 43915.3 Sedimentation 43915.4 Types of Sedimentation 43915.5 Settling Basins 44715.6 Upflow Clarification 45115.7 General Dimensions of Settling Tanks 45515.8 Sludge Removal 45615.9 Inlet Hydraulics 45615.10 Outlet Hydraulics 45915.11 Sedimentation Tank Loading, Detention, And Performance 45915.12 Shallow Depth Settlers 46215.13 Gravity Thickening of Sludge 46415.14 Natural Flotation 46715.15 Dissolved Air Flotation Process 468Problems/Questions 480References 48216 Conventional Filtration 485 16.1 Granular Water Filters 48516.2 Granular Wastewater Filters 48716.3 Granular Filtering Materials 48816.4 Preparation of Filter Sand 49016.5 Hydraulics of Filtration 49116.6 Hydraulics of Fluidized Beds--Filter Backwashing 49416.7 Removal of Impurities 49716.8 Kinetics of Filtration 49716.9 Filter Design 49816.10 Filter Appurtenances and Rate Control 50516.11 Length of Filter Run 50616.12 Filter Troubles 50716.13 Plant Performance 508Problems/Questions 509References 51017 Alternative and Membrane Filtration Technologies 513 17.1 Introduction of Filtration Technologies 51317.2 Direct Filtration 51417.3 Slow Sand Filtration 51617.4 Package Plant Filtration 51817.5 Diatomaceous Earth Filtration 52417.6 Cartridge Filtration 52617.7 Membrane Filtration 52717.8 Selecting the Appropriate Filtration Treatment System 540Problems/Questions 541References 54218 Disinfection and Disinfection By-products Control 545 18.1 Purpose of Disinfection 54518.2 Pathogens, Disinfection, and Disinfectants 54518.3 Disinfection by Heat 54618.4 Disinfection by Ultraviolet Light 54618.5 Disinfection by Chemicals 54618.6 Theory of Chemical Disinfection 54818.7 Kinetics of Chemical Disinfection 54918.8 Disinfection by Ozone 55418.9 Disinfection by Chlorine 55618.10 Free Available Chlorine and Free Chlorination 55618.11 Combined Available Chlorine and Chloramination 55818.12 Breakpoint Reactions of Ammonia 55918.13 Dechlorination 55918.14 Disinfection by-Products 56018.15 Chemical Technology of Disinfection 56218.16 Operational Technology of Chlorination 56218.17 Operational Technology of Sodium Hypochlorination 56718.18 Operational Technology of Calcium Hypochlorination 57018.19 Operational Technology of Chlorine Dioxide Disinfection 57018.20 Operational Technology of Ozonation 57118.21 Operational Technology of UV Disinfection 57418.22 Recent Developments in Disinfection Management--Log Removal/Inactivation Credits of Drinking Water Treatment Processes 582Problems/Questons 589References 59119 Chemical Precipitation and Water Softening 593 19.1 Chemical Precipitation 59319.2 Description of Precipitation Process 59319.3 Applicability 59619.4 Advantages and Disadvantages 59619.5 Design Criteria 59619.6 Performance--Jar Testing 59719.7 Operation and Maintenance 59719.8 Costs 59819.9 Precipitation of Hardness and Carbonates--Water Softening 59819.10 Recarbonation After Water Softening 60219.11 Recovering Lime After Water Softening 602Problems/Questions 603References 60320 Adsorption and Ion Exchange 605 20.1 Adsorption Processes 60520.2 Adsorption Kinetics and Equilibria 60520.3 Characteristics of Adsorbents 60820.4 Adsorption of Odors and Tastes 61020.5 Pilot Carbon Column Tests 61220.6 Breakthrough Curve 61320.7 Process Technology 61420.8 Ion Exchange 62420.9 Ion Exchangers 62620.10 The Ion Exchange Process 62820.11 Ion Selectivity 63020.12 Kinetics of Ion Exchange 63120.13 Ion Exchange Technology 63220.14 Water Softening by Ion Exchange 63320.15 Demineralization 63420.16 Concentration of Ions 63520.17 Ion Exchange Membranes and Dialysis 63520.18 Modular Treatment Units for Removal of Radionuclides 63620.19 Case Study I: Nitrate Removal: McFarland, CA 63620.20 Case Study II: Fluoride Removal in Gila Bend, AZ 637Problems/Questions 637References 63921 Chemical Stabilization and Control of Corrosion and Biofilms 641 21.1 Chemical Stabilization 64121.2 Corrosion 64321.3 The Corrosion Reaction 64421.4 Control of Corrosion 64821.5 Lead and Copper Corrosion 65021.6 Lead Corrosion Control 65121.7 Biofilm Control 655Problems/Questions 659References 66022 Residues Management, Safety, and Emergency Response 661 22.1 Management of Residues 66122.2 Types of Residuals 66222.3 Applicable Regulations 66322.4 Residual Solids Treatment 66322.5 Residuals Disposal 66422.6 Selection of Management Plans 66622.7 Safety and Accident Prevention 67022.8 Emergency Response Plan 67322.9 Actions Prior to Developing an ERP 67422.10 Emergency Response Plan Core Elements 67522.11 Putting the ERP Together and ERP Activation 67722.12 Action Plans 67822.13 Next Steps 681Problems/Questions 681References 68223 Prevention through Design and System Safety 683 23.1 Introduction to System Safety 68323.2 Nature and Magnitude of Safety and Health Problems 68523.3 Risk Assessment Matrix 68723.4 Failure Modes, Effects, and Criticality Analysis 69323.5 Engineering and Design for Safe Construction 69823.6 Construction Safety and Health Management 70323.7 Requirements for Safety in Construction Projects 70623.8 Occupational Diseases 71023.9 Ergonomics 714Problems/Questions 715References 71624 Engineering Projects Management 717 24.1 Role of Engineers 71724.2 Steps in Project Development 71724.3 The Engineering Report 71824.4 Feasibility Studies 71924.5 Alternatives 71924.6 Plans and Specifications 72024.7 Sources of Information 72024.8 Standards 72024.9 Design Specifications 72124.10 Project Construction 72124.11 Project Financing 72324.12 Methods of Borrowing 72524.13 Rate Making 72524.14 Systems Management 726Problems/Questions 727References 727Appendixes 729Index 797