Water Centric Sustainable Communities

Vladimir Novotny is Professor at Northeastern University in Boston, Massachusetts, and Emeritus Professor at Marquette University in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. He is also President of AquaNova, LLC. Jack Ahern is Professor of Landscape Architecture and Regional Planning at the University of Massachusetts in Amherst, Massachusetts.Paul Brown is Executive Vice President at CDM in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and is also Technical Director of the Neysadurai Centre for Integrated Water Resources and Urban Planning in Singapore.

• Preface xiiI Historic Paradigms of Urban Waterstormwater Wastewater Management and Drivers for Change 1I.1 Introduction 1I.2 Historic Paradigms: From Ancient Cities to the 20th Century 5I.2.1 First Paradigm 8I.2 Second Paradigm 9I.2.3 Third Paradigm 15I.2.4 Fourth Paradigm 25I.2.5 The Impact of Automobile Use 32I.2.6 Urban Sprawl 38I.2.7 The Rise of New Great Powers Competing for Resources 40I.3 Drivers for Change towards Sustainability 42I.3.1 Population Increases and Pressures 44I.3.2 Water Scarcity Problems and Flooding Challenges of Large Cities 49I.3 Greenhouse Emissions and Global Warming Effects 51I.3.4 Aging Infrastructure and the Need to Rebuild and Retrofit 59I.3.5 The Impossibility of Maintaining the Status Quo and Business as Usual 60I.4 The 21st Century and Beyond 65References 68II Urban Sustainability Concepts 72II.1 The Vision of Sustainability 72II.2 The Sustainability Concept and Definitions 73II.2.1 A New (Fifth) Paradigm Is Needed 73II.2 Definition of Pollution 76II.2.3 Sustainability Definitions 80II.2.4 Economic versus Resources Preservation Sustainability 82II.2.5 Sustainability Components 85II.2.6 The Environment and Ecology 87II.2.7 Living within the Limits in the Urban Landscape 90II.2.8 The Economy 94II.3 Towards the Fifth Paradigm of Sustainability 97II.3.1 Emerging Sustainable Urban WaterStormwaterUsed Water Systems 99II.3.2 Triple Bottom Line—Life Cycle Assessment (tbl—lca) 104II.3.3 Water Reclamation and Reuse 106II.3.4 Restoring Urban Streams 108II.3.5 Stormwater Pollution and Flood Abatement 110II.3.6 Urban Landscape 113II.4 Cities of the Future—Water Centric Ecocities 114II.4.1 Drainage and Water Management 114II.4.2 Microscale Measures and Macroscale Watershed Goals 116II.4.3 Integrated Resource Management Clusters—Ecoblocks of the Cities of the Future 120II.4 Interconnectivity of Clusters—Spatial Integration 123II.5 EcocityEcovillage Concepts 124References 129III Planning and Design for Sustainable and Resilient Cities: Theories, Strategies, and Best Practices forGreen Infrastructure 135III.1 Introduction 135III.1 Achieving Sustainability 135III.1.2 Sustainability through Urban Planning and Design 137III.2 Ecosystem Services 138III.2.1 Concepts 138III.2 The Non-Equilibrium Paradigm 141III.3 Planning for Resilient and Sustainable Cities 143III.3.1 Ecosystem Service Goals and Assessments 143III.3.2 Resilience Strategies 144III.3 Scenario Planning 155III.3.4 Transdisciplinary Process 157III.3.5 Adaptive Planning 157III.4 Best Practices for Green Infrastructure 158III.4.1 SEA Street Seattle 159III.4.2 Westergasfabriek Park, Amsterdam 162III.4.3 Staten Island Blue Belt, New York162III.4.4 Ecostaden (Ecocities): Augustenborg Neighborhood and Western Harbor, Malmö, Sweden 164III.5 Discussion 170References 171IV Stormwater Pollution Abatement and Flood Control—stormwater as a Resource 177IV.1 Urban Stormwater—A Problem or an Asset?  177IV.1 Problems with Urban Stormwater 177IV.1.2 Current Urban Drainage 182IV.1.3 Urban Stormwater Is an Asset and a Resource 184IV.1.4 Low Impact Development (LID) 186IV.2 Best Management Practices to Control Urban Runoff for Reuse 189IV.2.1 Soft Surface Approaches 190IV.2.2 Ponds and Wetlands 201IV.2.3 Winter Limitations on Stormwater Management and Use 212IV.2.4 Hard Infrastructure 216IV.2.5 ID Urban Drainage—A Step to the Cities of the Future 218References 222V Water Demand and Conservation 228V.1 Water Use 228V.1 Water on Earth 228V.1.2 Water Use Fundamentals 232V.1.3 Municipal Water Use in the U.S. and Worldwide 235V.1.4 Components of Municipal Water Use 239V.1.5 Virtual Water 240V.2 Water Conservation 241V.2.1 Definition of Water Conservation 241V.2 Residential Water Use 241V.2.3 Commercial and Public Water Use and Conservation 249V.2.4 Leaks and Other Losses 251V.3 Substitute and Supplemental Water Sources 252V.3.1 Rainwater Harvesting (RWH) 252V.3.2 Gray Water Reclamation and Reuse as a Source of New Water 256V.3 Desalination of Seawater and Brackish Water 260V.3.4 Urban Stormwater and Other Freshwater Flows as Sources of Water 266References 268VI Water Reclamation and Reuse 272VI. 1 Introduction 272VI.2 Water Reclamation and Reuse 274VI.2.1 The Concept 274VI.2 Reclaiming Rainwater and Stormwater 279VI.2.3 Water-Sewage-Water Cycle—Unintended Reuse 280VI.2.4 Centralized versus Decentralized Reclamation 281VI.2.5 Cluster Water Reclamation Units 282VI.3 Water Quality Goals and Limits for Selecting Technologies 286VI.3.1 Concepts 286VI.3.2 Landscape and Agricultural Irrigation 289VI.3 Urban Uses Other Than Irrigation and Potable Water Supply 293VI.3.4 Potable Reuse 297VI.3.5 Groundwater Recharge 300VI.3.6 Integrated Reclamation and Reuse—Singapore 304References 308VII Treatment and Resource Recovery Unit Processes 311VII.1 Brief Description of Traditional Water and Resource Reclamation Technologies 311VII.1 Basic Requirements 311VII.1.2 Considering Source Separation 312VII.1.3 Low-Energy Secondary Treatment 315VII.1.4 New Developments in Biological Treatment 324VII.2 Sludge Handling and Resource Recovery 329VII.2.1 Types of Solids Produced in the Water Reclamation Process 331VII.2 A New Look at Residual Solids (Sludge) as a Resource 334VII.3 Nutrient Recovery 336VII.4 Membrane Filtration and Reverse Osmosis 339VII.5 Disinfection 340VII.6 Energy and GHG Emission Issues in Water Reclamation Plants 346VII.7 Evaluation and Selection of Decentralized Water Reclamation Technologies 348VII.7.1 Closed Cycle Water Reclamation 348References 354VIII Energy and Urban Water Systems—towards Net Zero Carbon Footprint 358VIII. 1 Interconnection of Water and Energy 358VIII.1 Use of Water and Disposal of Used Water Require Energy and Emit GHGs 358VIII.1.2 Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Urban Areas 360VIII.1.3 The Water-Energy Nexus on the Regional and Cluster Scale 362VIII.1.4 Net Zero Carbon Footprint Goal for High-Performance Buildings and Developments 365VIII.2 Energy Conservation in Buildings and Ecoblocks 371VIII.2.1 Energy Considerations Related to Water 371VIII.2 Heat Recovery from Used Water 379VIII.3 Energy from Renewable Sources 380VIII.3.1 Solar Energy 380VIII.3.2 Wind Power387VIII.4 Energy from Used Water and Waste Organic Solids 392VIII.4.1 Fundamentals 392VIII.4.2 Biogas Production, Composition, and Energy Content 394VIII.4.3 Small and Medium Biogas Production Operations 397VIII.4 Anaerobic Upflow Reactor 398VIII.5 Direct Electric Energy Production from Biogas and Used Water 399VIII.5.1 Hydrogen Fuel Cells 400VIII.5.2 Microbial Fuel Cells (MFC) 403VIII.5.3 Harnessing the Hydraulic Energy of WaterUsed Water Systems 406VIII.6 Summary and a Look into the Future 408VIII.6.1 A New Look at the Used Water Reclamation Processes 408VIII.6.2 Integrated Resource Recovery Facilities 411VIII.7 Overall Energy Outlook—Anticipating the Future 416VIII.7.1 A Look into the Future 20 or More Years Ahead 416VIII.7.2 Is Storage a Problem? 421References 2IX Restoring Urban Streams 427IX.1 Introduction 427IX.1 Rediscovering Urban Streams 427IX.1.2 Definitions 437IX.2 Adverse Impacts of Urbanization to Be Remedied 438IX.2.1 Types of Pollution 438IX.2 Determining Main Impact Stressors to Be Fixed by Restoration 443IX.2.3 Effluent Dominated and Effluent Dependent Urban Water Bodies 447IX.3 Water Body Restoration in the Context of Future Water Centric (Eco) Cities 453IX.3.1 Goals 453IX.3.2 Regionalized versus Cluster-Based Distributed Systems 455IX.3 New Developments and Retrofitting Older Cities 457IX.4 Summary and Conclusions 476References 479X Planning and Management of Sustainable Future Communities 482X.1 Integrated Planning and Management 482X.1 Introduction 482X.1.2 Footprints 484X. 2 Urban Planning 487X.2.1 Ecocity Parameters and Demographics—Population Density Matters 488X. 3 Integrated Resources Management (IRM) 493X.3.1 Sustainability 493X. 4 Clusters and Ecoblocks—Distributed Systems 497X.4.1 The Need to Decentralize Urban WaterStormwaterUsed Water Management 497X.4.2 Distribution of Resource Recovery, Reclamation and Management Tasks 499X.4.3 Cluster Creation and Size 503X.4 Types of WaterEnergy Reclamations and Creation of a Sustainable Urban Area 505X. 5 System Analysis and Modeling of Sustainable Cities 514X.5.1 Complexity of the System and Modeling 514X.5.2 Triple Bottom Line (TBL) Assessment 518X. 6 Institutions 525X.6.1 Institutions for Integrated Resource Management 526X.6.2 Enhanced Private Sector 532X.6.3 Achieving Multibenefit System Objectives 533References 535XI Ecocities: Evaluation and Synthesis 539XI.1 Introduction 539XI.2 Case Studies 542XI.2.1 Hammarby Sjöstad, Sweden 542XI.2 Dongtan, China 549XI.2.3 Qingdao (China) Ecoblock and Ecocity 556XI.2.4 Tianjin (China) 560XI.2.5 Masdar (UAE) 566XI.2.6 Treasure Island (California, U.S.)  573XI.2.7 Sonoma Mountain Village (California, U.S.)  579XI.2.8 Dockside Green 585XI.3 Brief Summary 588References 590Appendix 595Index 597