Sustainable Plastics

Joseph P. Greene, PhD, is Professor Emeritus in the Mechanical and Mechatronic Engineering and Sustainable Manufacturing Department at California State University, Chico. He received a Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering in 1993 from the University of Michigan. Joe began teaching at California State University, Chico in 1998 after a 14-year career with General Motors Corporation in Detroit, Michigan. His research interests include bio-based and biodegradable polymers, recycled plastics, marine biodegradation testing, and anaerobic digestion.

• Acknowledgements xv1 Introduction to Sustainability 11.1 Sustainability Definition 11.1.1 Societal Impacts of Sustainability 31.1.2 Economic Impacts of Sustainability 41.1.3 Environmental Impacts of Sustainability 51.2 Green Chemistry Definitions 61.3 Green Engineering Definitions 81.4 Sustainability Definitions for Manufacturing 91.5 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 111.6 Lean and Green Manufacturing 111.7 Summary 11References 122 Environmental Issues 152.1 The Planet Is Warming 152.2 Melting of Glaciers 192.3 Rising Seas 212.4 Causes of Global Warming 232.4.1 Increased Greenhouse Gases 232.4.2 Sources of CO2eq Emissions 232.4.3 Anti-Warming Theory 282.5 Ocean Pollution and Marine Debris 282.5.1 Plastic Marine Debris 302.5.1.1 Persistent Organic Pollutants 332.5.2 Worldwide Coastal Cleanup 342.5.3 US Coastal Cleanup 412.6 Chemical Pollution from Plastics 422.7 Landfill Trash 432.8 Summary 49References 503 Life Cycle Information 573.1 Life Cycle Assessment for Environmental Hazards 573.2 Life Cycle Assessment Definitions 583.2.1 LCA Step 1: Goal and Scope Development 583.2.2 LCA Step 2: LCI Development 593.2.3 LCA Step 3: LCA Development 603.2.4 LCA Step 4: Interpretation of Results 603.3 ISO 14040/14044 Life Cycle Assessment Standards 613.4 Sensitivity Analysis 623.5 Minimal Acceptable Framework for Life Cycle Assessments 643.6 Life Cycle Inventory for Petroleum-Based Plastics 653.6.1 LCI for PET Pellets 653.6.2 LCA Sensitivity Analysis 673.6.3 LCA for PET, GPPS, HDPE, and PP Pellets 673.7 Life Cycle Assessment for Biobased Poly Lactic Acid 673.7.1 LCA Sensitivity Analysis 693.8 Summary 70Chapter 3 70LCI for PLA 70LCI for PLA 71LCI for PLA 71References 724 Bio-Based and Biodegradable Plastics 754.1 Bio-Based Plastics Definition 754.2 Bagasse 764.3 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) 774.4 Polylactic Acid (PLA) 824.5 Thermoplastic Starch (TPS) 854.6 Petroleum-Based Compostable Polymers 884.6.1 Ecoflex 884.6.2 Poly-ϵ-Caprolactone, (PCL) 894.6.3 Poly(Butylene Succinate) (PBS) 90References 91Websites 925 Bio-Based and Recycled Petroleum-Based Plastics 955.1 Bio-Based Conventional Plastics 955.1.1 Bio-Based Polyethylene 985.1.1.1 Composition 985.1.1.2 Chemistry 985.1.1.3 Mechanical Properties 995.1.1.4 Life Cycle Assessment for Bio-Based Polyethylene 1005.1.2 Bio-Based Polypropylene 1015.1.2.1 Composition 1015.1.2.2 Chemistry 1015.1.2.3 Mechanical Properties 1025.1.3 Bio-Based Ethylene Vinyl Acetate 1035.1.4 Bio-Based Polyethylene Terephthalate 1035.1.4.1 Composition 1035.1.4.2 Chemistry 1045.1.4.3 Mechanical Properties 1045.1.4.4 LCA of Bio-Based PET 1065.2 Recycled Petroleum-Based Plastics 1065.2.1 Mechanical Recycling 1085.2.1.1 Plastics Mechanical Recycling Process 1095.2.2 California Plastics Recycling 1115.2.3 Society of Plastics Industry Recycling Codes 1125.2.4 LCAs of Recycled Plastics 1125.2.4.1 Life Cycle Inventory 1135.2.4.2 Sustainable Recycled Plastic Products 1145.3 Oxodegradable Additives for Plastics 1145.4 Summary 115References 1156 End-of-Life Options for Plastics 1196.1 US EPA WARM Program 1196.2 Mechanical Recycling of Plastics 1196.2.1 US Plastics Recycling 1206.2.2 Plastics Recycling Process 1206.3 Chemical Recycling 1266.4 Composting 1286.4.1 LCA of Composting Process 1296.5 Waster to Energy 1296.5.1 Municipal Solid Waste Combustion 1306.5.2 Blast Furnace 1326.5.3 Cement Kiln 1336.5.4 Pollution Issues with Waste-to-Energy Process of Plastics 1346.6 Landfill Operations 1356.7 Life Cycle Assessment of End-of-Life Options 1366.8 Summary 138References 1387 Sustainable Plastic Products 1437.1 Introduction 1437.2 Sustainable Plastic Packaging 1447.2.1 LCAs of Sustainable Plastic Packaging 1447.2.1.1 LCA Step 1. Creation of the LCA Goal for Plastic Packaging 1447.2.1.2 LCA Step 2. Creation of the Life Cycle Inventories for Plastic Packaging 1447.2.1.3 LCA Step 3. Creation of the LCAs for Plastic Packaging 1457.2.1.4 LCA Step 4. Interpretation of the Three Previous Steps for Plastic Packaging 1457.2.2 Literature Review of LCAs for Plastic Packaging 1467.2.2.1 Case 1: LCA of Plastic Food Service Products 1467.2.2.2 Case 2: LCA of Plastic Packaging Products 1487.2.2.3 Case 3: LCA of Plastic Clamshell Products 1497.2.3 LCA of Sustainable Plastic Containers Made from Bio-Based and Petroleum-Based Plastics 1527.2.4 Greene Sustainability Index (GSI) of Sustainable Plastic Containers 1537.3 Sustainable Plastic Grocery Bags 1557.3.1 Literature Review of LCA of Plastic Bags 1557.3.1.1 LCA of Plastic Bags from Boustead Consulting 1567.3.1.2 Sensitivity Analysis 1567.3.2 LCA of Plastic Bags from the Paper Industry in Hong Kong 1577.3.2.1 Greene Sustainability Index of Plastic Bags 1587.3.3 Reusable Plastic Bags 1587.3.3.1 Australian LCA of Reusable rPET Bags 1587.3.3.2 Scottish LCA of Reusable rPET Bags 1607.3.3.3 New LCA Development for Reusable Plastic Bags: Step 1 – Development of the Goal 1627.3.3.4 New LCA Development for Reusable Plastic Bags: Step 2 – LCI Development 1637.3.3.5 Bags Step 3: Life Cycle Assessment 1677.3.3.6 Greene Sustainability Index (GSI) of Reusable Plastic Bags 1687.4 Life Cycle Assessment of Sustainable Plastic Bottles 1697.4.1 LCAs Literature Review of Plastic Bottles 1707.4.2 Greene Sustainability Index of Sustainable Plastic Bottles 1717.4.3 Sensitivity Analysis 1727.5 Summary 172References 1738 Biobased and Biodegradation Standards for Polymeric Materials 1778.1 Introduction 1778.1.1 Biodegradation Standards 1788.1.2 Worldwide Biodegradation 1788.1.2.1 Standards Agencies 1788.1.3 Certification 1798.2 Biobased Standard Test Method 1808.2.1 US Biobased Standard 1808.2.1.1 ASTM D6866-10 Standard Test Methods for Determining the Biobased Content of Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous Samples Using Radiocarbon Analysis 1808.2.2 International Biobased Standards 1818.3 Industrial Compost Environment 1818.3.1 US Biodegradation Standards for Industrial Compost Environment 1818.3.1.1 Biodegradation Performance Specification Standard: ASTM D6400-04. Standard Specification for Compostable Plastics 1818.3.1.2 Biodegradation Performance Specification Standard: ASTM D6868–03. Standard Specification for Biodegradable Plastics Used as Coatings on Paper and Other Compostable Substrates 1838.3.1.3 Biodegradation Test Method Standard: ASTM D5338-11. Standard Test Method for Determining Aerobic Biodegradation of Plastic Materials under Controlled Composting Conditions 1858.3.2 International Biodegradation Standards for Industrial Compost Environment 1868.3.2.1 Biodegradation Performance Specification Standard: EN 13432-2000. Packaging Requirements for Packaging Recoverable through Composting and Biodegradation Test Scheme and Evaluation Criteria for the Final Acceptance of Packaging 1888.3.2.2 Biodegradation Performance Specification Standard: ISO 17088 (EN 13432). Plastics – Evaluation of compostability – Test Scheme and Specification 1908.3.2.3 Biodegradation Test Method Standard: ISO 14855-2 (EN 14046) Packaging. Evaluation of the Ultimate Aerobic Biodegradability and Disintegration of Packaging Materials under Controlled Composting Conditions. Method by Analysis of Released Carbon Dioxide 1928.3.2.4 ISO 16929 (EN14045:2003) Plastics – Determination of the Degree of Disintegration of Plastic Materials under Simulated Composting Conditions in a Pilot-Scale Test 1938.3.2.5 ISO 20200 (EN14806:2005) Plastics – Determination of the Degree of Disintegration of Plastic Materials under Simulated Composting Conditions in a Laboratory-Scale Test 1948.3.2.6 Australian Biodegradation Standards for Industrial Compost 1958.3.2.7 Japanese Biodegradation Standards for Industrial Compost 1968.4 Marine Environment 1968.4.1 US Biodegradation Standards for Marine Environment 1978.4.1.1 Biodegradation Performance Specification Standard: ASTM D-7081- 05. Nonfloating Biodegradable Plastic in the Marine Environment 1978.4.1.2 Biodegradation Test Method Standard: ASTM D6691-09. Standard Test Method for Determining Aerobic Biodegradation of Plastic Materials in the Marine Environment by a Defined Microbial Consortium or Natural Seawater Inoculum 1988.4.2 International Aqueous Biodegradation Standards 2008.4.2.1 Biodegradation Test Method Standard: ISO 14852-1999 (EN14047). Determination of Ultimate Aerobic Biodegradability of Plastic Materials in an Aqueous Medium – Method by Analysis of Evolved Carbon 2008.4.2.2 Biodegradation Test Method Standard: ISO 14851 (EN14048). Determination of Ultimate Aerobic Biodegradability of Plastic Materials in an Aqueous Medium – Method by Measuring the Oxygen Demand in a Closed Respirometer 2018.5 Anaerobic Digestion 2028.5.1 US Biodegradation Standards for Anaerobic Digestion 2038.5.1.1 Biodegradation Test Method Standard: ASTM D5511-02. Standard Test Method for Determining Anaerobic Biodegradation of Plastic Materials under High Solids Anaerobic-Digestion Conditions 2038.5.2 International Biodegradation Standards for Anaerobic Digestion 2058.5.2.1 Biodegradation Test Method Standard: ISO 14853:2005 Plastics. Determination of Ultimate Anaerobic Biodegradation of Plastic Materials in an Aqueous System. Method of Biogas Production 2058.6 Active Landfill 2078.6.1 US Biodegradation Standards for Active Landfill 2078.6.1.1 Biodegradation Test Method Standard: ASTM D5526-11. Determining Anaerobic Biodegradation of Plastic Materials under Accelerated Landfill Conditions 2078.6.1.2 Biodegradation Test Method Standard: ASTM D7475-11.Determining Aerobic Degradation and Anaerobic Biodegradation of Plastic Materials under Accelerated Landfill Conditions 2098.6.2 International Biodegradation Standards for Active Landfill 2118.7 Home Compost 2118.7.1 European Home Compost Certification 2118.7.1.1 Summary 2128.7.1.2 Procedures 2128.7.1.3 Specifications 2138.7.2 US Home Composting Standards 2138.8 Soil Biodegradation 2138.8.1 European Soil Biodegradation Certification 2138.8.1.1 Summary 2138.8.1.2 Procedures 2148.8.1.3 Specifications 2148.8.2 US Soil Biodegradation Standards 2158.9 Summary 215References 2169 Commodity Plastics 2179.1 Definition of Commodity Plastics 2179.2 Commodity Plastics 2189.2.1 Low-Density Poly(ethylene) (LDPE) 2229.2.1.1 High-Density Poly(ethene) (HDPE) 2239.2.2 Linear Low-Density Poly(ethene) (LLDPE) 2269.2.3 Metallocene Linear Low-Densi t Poly(ethene) (mLLDPE) 2289.2.3.1 Ultra-High Molecular Weight Polyethylene (UHMWPE) 2289.2.3.2 Cross-Linkable Polyethylene (XLPE) 2299.2.3.3 Copolymers of Polyethylene 2299.2.4 Polypropylene (PP) 2309.2.4.1 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) 2329.2.4.2 PVC Plasticizers 2339.2.4.3 Polystyrene (PS) 2359.2.4.4 Blends and Alloys 2399.2.4.5 Copolymers 2399.2.4.6 Acrylics 2419.2.4.7 Additives for Plastics 244References 247Websites 24810 Engineering Plastics 25110.1 Engineering Plastics Definition 25110.2 Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene 25210.3 Acetal (Polyoxymethylene) 25510.4 Liquid Crystal Polymer 25710.5 PBT (Polybutylene Terephthalate) 26010.6 PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate) 26210.7 Nylon (Polyamide) 26310.8 Polyimide 26610.9 Polyarylate 26810.10 Polycarbonate 26810.11 Thermoplastic Polyurethane 27010.12 Polyether-Ether-Ketone 27110.13 PPO, PPS and PPE 27310.14 Polytetrafluoroethylene 275References 27711 Thermoset Polymers 27911.1 Automotive Thermoset Polymers 27911.1.1 Polyester Resin 28011.1.1.1 Mechanical Properties 28411.1.1.2 Processing of Polyesters 28411.1.1.3 Mechanical Properties 28511.1.2 Epoxy 28511.1.2.1 Epoxy Applications 28611.1.2.2 Processing of Epoxies 28711.1.3 Polyurethane 28711.1.3.1 Processing of Polyurethane 28711.1.3.2 Polyurethane Automotive Applications 28911.1.4 Phenolics 29011.1.4.1 Applications for Phenolics 29311.1.4.2 Processing of Phenolics 29311.1.4.3 Properties of Phenolics 29311.1.5 Silicones 29511.1.5.1 Silicone Rubber 29711.1.5.2 Silicone Resin 29711.1.5.3 Chemistry 29811.1.6 Dicyclopentadiene 29811.2 Aerospace Thermosets 29911.2.1 Polyimides 30011.2.2 Amino Plastics 30211.3 Bio-Based Thermoset Polymers 30511.3.1 Bio-Based Polyesters 30511.3.2 Bio-Based Epoxies 30611.3.3 Bio-Based Polyurethanes 30811.3.4 Bio-Based Nylon-6 31011.4 Conclusions 311References 313Websites 31512 Polymer Composites 31712.1 Automotive Polymer Composites 31712.2 Thermoset Polymer Composites 31812.2.1 Thermoplastic Polymer Composites 32012.2.2 Kevlar Composites 32312.3 Nanocomposite 32412.4 Fiber Materials for Composites 32412.5 Carbon Fiber Manufacturing 32812.6 Properties of Fibers 33112.7 Rule of Mixtures 33612.8 Sandwich and Cored Polymer Composite Structures 34012.9 Polymer Pre-Preg Composites 34612.10 Processing of Polymer Composites for Automotive Parts 34612.11 Aerospace Polymer Composites 35112.12 Processing of Polymer Composites for Aerospace Parts 351References 354Websites 35513 Natural Fiber Polymer Composites 35713.1 Natural Fibers 35713.2 Raw Material Information 35813.3 Fiber Properties 36013.4 Automotive Use of Natural Fibers 36113.5 Processing of Natural Fibers 36213.6 Test Results of Natural Fibers 371References 37514 Design Aspects in Automotive Plastics 37714.1 Introduction 37714.2 Design Process 37814.3 Manufacturing Checklist for Quality 37914.4 Plastic Materials for Automotive Use 38014.5 Plastic Guidelines for Injection Molding 38214.6 Plastic Prototypes and 3D Printing 38514.7 SolidWorks Flow Simulation 38714.8 Design for Manufacturing (DFM) with Plastics 38714.9 Shrinkage in Plastics 38814.10 Design Guidelines 38814.11 Undercuts 40214.12 Mold Stack Design 40314.13 Mold Costs 405References 407Websites 40815 Future of Sustainable Plastics 41115.1 Sustainable Biobased Plastics Made from Renewable Sources 41115.2 Sustainable Traditional Plastics Made from Renewable Sources 41515.3 Growth in Biobased Plastics with Development of Durable Goods 41615.4 Growth in Biobased Plastics for Pharmaceuticals and Medical Applications 41715.5 Summary 418References 419Index 423