Sustainable Cities in a Changing Climate

Sami G. Al-Ghamdi is Professor of Sustainable Built Environment and Climate Change Resilient Infrastructure at King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Saudi Arabia. He holds a PhD in Civil and Environmental Engineering from the University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA, and is a LEED-accredited professional who specializes in green building design and construction.

• List of Contributors xiiiAbout the Editor xvPreface xviiAbbreviations xixPart I Climate Change and The Built Environment: Foundations and Implications 11 Understanding Climate Change Fundamentals: Exploring the Forces Shaping Our Planet’s Future 3Introduction 3Recent Climate Change is Anthropogenic 5Spatial Distribution of Global Warming 6Modes of Climate Variability 6Find, Read, and Process Climatic Data 8Climate Models (GCMs and RCMs) 8Pathways and Scenarios 10Observations and Reanalysis 10Visualizing and Processing Climatic Data 12Conclusion 15References 152 Advancing Urban Resilience and Sustainability Through the WRF-Urban Model: Bridging Numerical Modeling and Real-World Applications 17Introduction 17Nexus Between Urbanization and Climate Change 18Urban Modeling Through WRF-Urban Model 19Overview of the WRF-Urban Model 20Applications of the WRF-Urban Model 20Relevant Case Studies 21Case Study 1: Urban Climate Modeling in Singapore Using WRF-Urban 21Case Study 2: Summertime Air Conditioning Electric Loads Modeling in Beijing, China, Using WRF-Urban 21Case Study 3: Coastal-Urban Meteorology Study in the Metropolitan Region of Vitória, Brazil, Using the WRF-Urban Model 22Limitations of the WRF-Urban Model 22Ways Forward for Improvement 23Conclusions 24References 253 Assessing and Projecting Climatic Changes in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) Region: Insights from Regional Climate Model (RCM) Simulations and Future Projections 29Introduction 29Methodology 31GCMs vs. RCMs in Simulating MENA Temperature and Precipitation 32RCMs Performance in Simulating MENA Climatic Changes 34Projected Future Changes Over MENA-CORDEX 35Conclusion 36References 384 Building for Climate Change: Examining the Environmental Impacts of the Built Environment 39Introduction 39Embodied Carbon Emission in Building Environment 40Embodied Carbon Emission for Selected Building Materials 40Embodied Carbon Emission of Limestone Quarrying 41Embodied Carbon Emission from Cement and Concrete Manufacturing 42Embodied Carbon from Asphalt Production and Construction 44Embodied Carbon Emission of Steel Production 45Embodied Carbon Mitigation Strategies 46MS1: Using Materials with a Lower Embodied Carbon 46Precast Hollow-Core Slabs 48Steel Framework System 48Use of Unfired Brick 48Ethylene Tetrafluoroethylene 49MS2: Reducing, Reusing, and Recovering— Heavy Building Materials 49MS3: Improvement in Design Phase and Efficient Construction 49MS4: Carbon Sequestration 51MS5: Extending the Building’s Life 51Operation Carbon Emissions in Building Environment 51Operation Carbon Mitigation Strategies 52Efficient HVAC Systems in Buildings 53Renewable Resources Integration 53Strategy for Water Use 54Use of Lighting 54Conclusion 55References 565 Unveiling the Nexus: Human Developments and Their Influence on Climate Change 61Introduction 61Life Cycle Assessment for Environmental Impact 63ReCiPe Impact Category: Climate Change 64Energy Sector Impact on Climate Change 65Case Study 1: Electricity Generation in Turkey 65Case Study 2: Coal Power Plant with Carbon Capture Technology in Czech Republic 67Case Study 3: Solar Power with Energy Storage 68Emissions Savings from Energy Sector 69Energy Efficiency Increase 70Wind and Solar Plant Installation 71Keep Running the Nuclear Plants 72Freshwater Sector Impact on Climate Change 72Case Study 1: Water Supply in Singapore 72Case Study 2: Seawater Desalination in South Africa 73Case Study 3: Multistage Flash Desalination in Qatar 73Emission Savings from Water Sector 74Groundwater Management 74Energy Management in Water System 75Smart Wastewater Treatment Technology 75Concluding Remarks 75References 76Part II Quantifying Resilience and Its Qualities 796 Assessing Resilience in Urban Critical Infrastructures: Interdependencies and Considerations 81Introduction 81Individual Network Resilience 83Transportation Network Resilience 84Electrical Network Resilience 84Water Network Resilience 85Case Study About Individual System Resilience: Transportation Resilience During Mega Sport Events 86Infrastructures Interdependencies and Resilience 88Case Study About Interdependent Systems Resilience 90Conclusion 92References 937 Assessing Infrastructure Resilience: Approaches and Considerations 97Introduction 97Complex Networks 98Types of Graphs 98Directed and Undirected Graphs 99Weighted and Unweighted Graphs 99Main Applications in Resilience Assessment 100Betweenness Centrality 100Graph Percolation 101Strengths and Limitations of Complex Networks 101Simulation Approaches 101System Simulation 102Agent-Based Modeling 103GIS-Based Approaches 103Strengths and Limitations of Simulation Approaches 103Other Approaches 104Statistical Approaches 104Optimization Approaches 104Conclusion 105References 1058 Enhancing Buildings Resilience: A Comprehensive Perspective on Earthquake Resilient Design 111Introduction 111Structural Resilience Representation 112Performance-Based Design (PBD) 114Supporting Systems 115Supporting Systems Within the Building 116Beyond the Building Limits 116Conclusion 117References 1189 Enhancing Built Environment Resilience: Exploring Themes and Dimensions 121Introduction 121Uncertainty 122Risk Identification and Assessment 123Resilience Capacities 123Resilience Components 124Types of Resilience 124Ecological and Engineering Resilience 125Community and Social Resilience 127Specified and General Resilience 128Critical Infrastructure Resilience 128Technical Systems, Products, and Production Resilience 129Resilience Dimensions and Capitals 129Resilience Measuring 130Conclusion 133References 13410 Unveiling Urban Resilience: Exploring the Qualities and Interconnections of Urban Systems 139Introduction 139Urban Resilience to Climate Change 140Climate Change Impacts on Built Environment Systems 140Temperature Rise 144Sea Level Rise (SLR) 144Interacting Stresses 144Major Uncertainties and Interrelations 146Resilience Qualities 146Reflectivity 146Robustness 147Redundancy 147Flexibility 147Resourcefulness 148Rapidity of Recovery 148Inclusivity 148Integration 148Interrelation of Resilience Qualities 149Conclusion 149References 15011 Quantifying Urban Resilience: Methods and Approaches for Comprehensive Assessment 155Introduction 155Urban Resilience 156Resilience Strategies 156Urban and Community Resilience Assessment 157Resilience Assessment Approaches 159Qualitative Resilience Assessment 160Conceptual Frameworks 161Semiquantitative Indices 163Quantitative Resilience Assessment 163General Resilience Approaches (Measures) 164Deterministic Performance-based Approach 165Probabilistic Performance-based Approach 165Structural-based Models 165Optimization Models 165Simulation Models 165Fuzzy Logic Models 166Frameworks and Tools for Measuring Resilience 166Conclusion 177References 177Part III Resilient Urban Systems: Navigating Climate Change and Enhancing Sustainability 18312 Building Climate Resilience Through Urban Planning: Strategies, Challenges, and Opportunities 185Introduction 185Understanding Climate Change Impacts on Urban Areas 186Urban Planning Strategies for Mitigating Climate Change Impacts 188Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) 188Fifteen Minutes City (FMC) 190Compact Cities 190Sustainable Land Use and Development Policies 191Low-Impact Development (LID) 191Sponge Cities 192Green Infrastructure and Urban Greening Initiatives for Cool Cities 193Waste Management and Recycling Systems, Public Participation, and Education 194Risk Assessment and Adaptation in Urban Planning 195Case Studies of Successful Climate-Responsive Urban Planning 200Challenges and Opportunities 202Major Key Points 203Conclusion 204References 20413 Integrating Green–Blue–Gray Infrastructure for Sustainable Urban Flood Risk Management: Enhancing Resilience and Advantages 207Introduction 207Green Infrastructure (GI) 208Gray Infrastructure (GRAI) 209Green–Blue–Gray Infrastructure Combination 209Benefits of Combining Green–Blue–Gray Infrastructure (GBGI) Systems 209Green–Blue–Gray Infrastructure (GBGI) for Flood Risk Management 210Environmental Impacts of Floods and Green Climate Change Adaptation 210Regional Progress in GBGI Nexus Research 211Flood Risk Management Resilience 212Conclusion 221References 22114 Enhancing Energy System Resilience: Navigating Climate Change and Security Challenges 227Introduction 227Adapting the Theory of Resilience to Energy Systems 229Why Incorporate Resilience into Energy Systems? 234What are the Threats to the Energy System? 235Domains of Resilience Approaches to Energy Systems 237Resilience Enhancement Approaches for Energy Systems 240System Hardening 240Distributed Generation 240Energy Storage 241Smart Grid Technology 241Enhancing Energy Efficiency 242Make Climate Resilience a Central Part of Energy System Planning 242Conclusion 243References 24515 Building Resilient Health Policies: Incorporating Climate Change Impacts for Sustainable Adaptation 251Introduction 251Climate Change Impacts on Public Health 253Infectious Diseases 254Air Pollution 255Extreme Events 256Considerations in Health Policy Development 256Reducing Carbon Emissions 256Medical Interventions 257Healthy Lifestyle 257Monitoring 257Proactive Approaches 258Strengthening Institutions 258Conclusion 259References 25916 Enhancing Resilience: Surveillance Strategies for Monitoring the Spread of Vector-Borne Diseases 263Introduction 263Vector-Borne Diseases 265Environmental Factors and Vector-Borne Diseases 265Climate Change Impacts on Vector-Borne Diseases 266Surveillance Strategies 266Monitoring of Human Cases 268Identification of Pathogen Species 269Distribution and Behavior of Vectors 269Climatic and Environmental Changes 270Control Measures 270Policy Development 270Conclusion 271References 271Glossary 277Index 281