Sugarcane-based Biofuels and Bioproducts

Ian O'Hara is Associate Professor of Process Engineering with the Centre for Tropical Crops and Biocommodities at Queensland University of Technology in Brisbane, AustraliaSagadevan Mundree is Professor and Director of the Centre for Tropical Crops and Biocommodities at Queensland University of Technology in Brisbane, Australia

• Preface, xiiiList of contributors, xvPart I Sugarcane for biofuels and bioproducts1 The sugarcane industry, biofuel, and bioproduct perspectives, 3Ian M. O’Hara1.1 Sugarcane – a global bioindustrial crop, 31.2 The global sugarcane industry, 51.2.1 Sugarcane, 51.2.2 Sugarcane harvesting and transport, 61.2.3 The raw sugar production process, 71.2.4 The refined sugar production process, 91.2.5 The sugar market, 111.3 Why biofuels and bioproducts?, 111.3.1 The search for new revenue, 111.3.2 Sugar, ethanol, and cogeneration, 121.3.3 Fiber-based biofuels and bioproducts, 131.3.4 Climate change and renewable products, 131.3.5 New industries for sustainable regional communities, 141.4 Sugarcane biorefinery perspectives, 141.4.1 The sugarcane biorefinery, 141.4.2 The sustainability imperative, 171.4.3 Future developments in biotechnology for sugarcane biorefineries, 181.5 Concluding remarks, 19References, 202 Sugarcane biotechnology: tapping unlimited potential, 23Sudipta S. Das Bhowmik, Anthony K. Brinin, Brett Williams and Sagadevan G. Mundree2.1 Introduction, 232.2 History of sugarcane, sugarcane genetics, wild varieties, 242.3 Uses of sugarcane, 252.3.1 Food and beverages, 252.3.2 Biofuels and bioenergy, 262.3.3 Fibers and textiles, 262.3.4 Value-added products, 262.4 Sugarcane biotechnology, 262.4.1 Limitations of sugarcane biotechnology, 292.5 Improvement of sugarcane – breeding versus genetic modification through biotechnology, 292.6 Genetic modification of sugarcane, 302.7 Paucity of high-quality promoters, 322.8 Opportunities for GM-improved sugarcane, 322.9 Improved stress tolerance and disease resistance, 352.9.1 Stress tolerance, 352.9.2 Drought, 352.9.3 Salinity, 352.10 Naturally resilient plants as a novel genetic source for stress tolerance, 362.11 Disease resistance, 372.12 Industrial application of sugarcane, 392.13 How will climate change and expanded growing-region affect vulnerability to pathogens?, 402.14 Conclusion and perspectives, 41References, 42Part II Biofuels and bioproducts3 Fermentation of sugarcane juice and molasses for ethanol production, 55Cecília Laluce, Guilherme R. Leite, Bruna Z. Zavitoski, Thamires T. Zamaiand Ricardo Ventura3.1 Introduction, 553.2 Natural microbial ecology, 563.2.1 Saccharomyces yeasts, 563.2.2 Wild yeasts, 583.2.3 Bacterial contaminants, 583.3 Yeast identification, 603.3.1 Identification of genetic and physiological phenotypes, 603.3.2 Molecular identification methods, 613.4 Cell surface and cell–cell interactions, 623.4.1 Dissolved air flotation, 623.4.2 Flocculation, 643.4.3 Biofilms, 653.5 Sugarcane juice and bagasse, 653.5.1 Harvesting of the sugarcane, 653.5.2 Reception and cleaning of sugarcane, 663.5.3 Juice extraction, 663.5.4 Juice clarification, 663.5.5 Juice concentration, 663.5.6 Quality of clarified juice, 673.6 Fermentation of juice and molasses, 673.6.1 Starters yeasts, 673.6.2 Raw materials used in fermentation, 673.6.3 The fermentation, 683.7 Cogeneration of energy from bagasse, 683.8 Bioreactors and processes, 693.8.1 Batch fermentation, 703.8.2 Fed-batch fermentation, 703.8.3 Multistage Stage Continuous Fermentation (MSCF) system, 723.9 Control of microbial infections, 733.10 Monitoring and controlling processes, 743.11 Concluding remarks and perspective, 76Acknowledgments, 77References, 774 Production of fermentable sugars from sugarcane bagasse, 87Zhanying Zhang, Mark D. Harrison and Ian M. O’Hara4.1 Introduction, 874.2 Bioethanol from bagasse, 884.3 Overview of pretreatment technologies, 904.4 Pretreatment of bagasse, 914.4.1 Dilute acid pretreatment, 914.4.2 Alkaline pretreatment, 924.4.3 Liquid hot water pretreatment, 934.4.4 Organosolv pretreatment, 944.4.5 Ionic liquid pretreatment, 974.4.6 SO2- and CO2-associated pretreatments, 984.5 Enzymatic hydrolysis, 994.6 Fermentation, 1004.7 Conclusions and future perspectives, 102References, 1035 Chemicals manufacture from fermentation of sugarcane products, 111Karen T. Robins and Robert E. Speight5.1 Introduction, 1115.2 The suitability of sugarcane-derived feedstocks in industrial fermentation processes, 1145.2.1 Competing current applications of sugarcane products, 1155.2.2 Use of sugarcane products in fermentations, 1175.3 Metabolism and industrial host strains, 1215.3.1 Metabolism of sucrose, 1215.3.2 Metabolism of lignocellulose-derived sugars, 1245.3.3 Optimization of strains and metabolism, 1265.4 Bioprocess considerations, 1275.5 Sugarcane-derived chemical products, 1305.6 Summary, 132References, 1336 Mathematical modeling of xylose production from hydrolysis of sugarcane bagasse, 137Ava Greenwood, Troy Farrell and Ian M. O’Hara6.1 Introduction, 1376.2 Mathematical models of hemicellulose acid pretreatment, 1396.2.1 Kinetic models of hemicellulose acid hydrolysis, 1396.2.2 The Saeman kinetic model, 1396.2.3 The biphasic model, 1406.2.4 The polymer degradation equation, 1436.2.5 Other mathematical considerations and models of hemicellulose acid hydrolysis, 1466.3 A mathematical model of sugarcane bagasse dilute-acid hydrolysis, 1506.4 Sensitivity analysis, 1536.4.1 Experimental solids loadings and fitting the hard-to-hydrolyze parameter, 1556.4.2 Hemicellulose chain length characteristics and the parameter fitting of ka and kb, 1566.5 Conclusions, 159References, 1607 Hydrothermal liquefaction of lignin, 165Kameron G. Dunn and Philip A. Hobson7.1 Introduction, 1657.2 A review of lignin alkaline hydrolysis research, 1707.3 Hydrolysis in subcritical and supercritical water without an alkali base, 1867.4 Solvolysis with hydrogen donor solvent formic acid, 1887.5 Reported depolymerization pathways of lignin and lignin model compounds, 1927.6 The solid residue product, 1947.7 Summary – strategies to increase yields of monophenols, 1957.7.1 Reaction temperature, 2007.7.2 Reaction pressure, 2017.7.3 Reaction time, 2017.7.4 Lignin loading, 2027.7.5 Alkali molarity, 2027.7.6 Monomer separation, 2027.7.7 Lignin structure, 202References, 2038 Conversion of sugarcane carbohydrates into platform chemicals, 207Darryn W. Rackemann, Zhanying Zhang and William O.S. Doherty8.1 Introduction, 2078.1.1 Bagasse, 2088.1.2 Biorefining, 2088.2 Platform chemicals, 2108.2.1 Furans, 2128.2.2 Furfural, 2128.2.3 HMF, 2148.3 Organic acids, 2148.3.1 Levulinic acid, 2148.3.2 Formic acid, 2188.4 Value of potential hydrolysis products, 2188.5 Current technology for manufacture of furans and levulinic acid, 2208.6 Technology improvements, 2228.7 Catalysts, 2238.7.1 Homogeneous catalysts, 2238.7.2 Heterogeneous catalysts, 2248.7.3 Levulinic acid, 2248.8 Solvolysis, 2268.9 Other product chemicals, 2288.9.1 Esters, 2288.9.2 Ketals, 2288.9.3 Chloromethylfurfural, 2298.9.4 GVL, 2298.10 Concluding remarks, 230References, 2319 Cogeneration of sugarcane bagasse for renewable energy production, 237Anthony P. Mann9.1 Introduction, 2379.2 Background, 2389.3 Sugar factory processes without large-scale cogeneration, 2439.4 Sugar factory processes with large-scale cogeneration, 2499.4.1 Reducing LP steam heating requirements, 2499.4.2 Reducing boiler station losses, 2519.4.3 Increasing power generation efficiency, 2539.4.4 A sugar factory cogeneration steam cycle, 2549.5 Conclusions, 256References, 25710 Pulp and paper production from sugarcane bagasse, 259Thomas J. Rainey and Geoff Covey10.1 Background, 25910.2 History of bagasse in the pulp and paper industry, 26010.3 Depithing, 26010.3.1 The need for depithing, 26010.3.2 Depithing operation, 26210.3.3 Character of pith, depithed bagasse, and whole bagasse, 26410.3.4 Combustion of pith, 26410.4 Storage of bagasse for papermaking, 26610.5 Chemical pulping and bleaching of bagasse, 26810.5.1 Digestion, 26810.5.2 Black liquor, 26910.5.3 Bleaching, 27010.6 Mechanical and chemi-mechanical pulping, 27110.7 Papermaking, 27210.7.1 Fiber morphology, 27210.7.2 Suitability of bagasse for various paper grades, 27310.7.3 Physical properties, 27410.7.4 Effect of pith on paper production, 27510.8 Alternate uses of bagasse pulp, 276References, 27711 Sugarcane-derived animal feed, 281Mark D. Harrison11.1 Introduction, 28111.1.1 The anatomy of the sugarcane plant, 28211.1.2 Sugarcane production, processing, and sugar refining, 28211.1.3 Scope of the chapter, 28411.2 Crop residues and processing products, 28511.2.1 Whole sugarcane, 28511.2.2 Tops and trash, 28611.2.3 Bagasse, 28811.2.4 Molasses, 28811.2.5 Sugarcane juice, 29011.3 Processing sugarcane residues to enhance their value in animal feed, 29011.3.1 Ensilage/microbial conditioning, 29111.3.2 Chemical conditioning, 29311.3.3 Physical processing (baling, pelletization, depithing), 29611.3.4 Pretreatment, 29611.4 Conclusions, 300References, 300Part III Systems and sustainability12 Integrated first- and second-generation processes for bioethanol production from sugarcane, 313Marina O. de Souza Dias, Otávio Cavalett, Rubens M. Filho and Antonio Bonomi12.1 Introduction, 31312.2 Process descriptions, 31512.2.1 First-generation ethanol production, 31512.2.2 Second-generation ethanol production, 31712.2.3 Cogeneration in integrated first- and second-generation ethanol production from sugarcane, 32012.2.4 Some aspects of the process integration, 32112.3 Economic aspects of first- and second-generation ethanol production, 32312.4 Environmental aspects of first- and second-generation ethanol production, 32512.5 Final remarks, 328References, 32813 Greenhouse gas abatement from sugarcane bioenergy, biofuels, and biomaterials, 333Marguerite A. Renouf13.1 Introduction, 33313.2 Life cycle assessment (LCA) of sugarcane systems, 33513.2.1 Overview of LCA and carbon footprinting, 33513.2.2 Past LCA and carbon footprint studies of sugarcane bioproducts, 33713.3 Greenhouse gas/carbon footprint profile of sugarcane bioproducts, 33913.3.1 Land use change, 33913.3.2 Sugarcane production, 34013.3.3 Sugarcane biorefining, 34213.3.4 Downstream phases, 34313.4 Greenhouse gas (GHG) abatement from sugarcane products, 34313.4.1 Comparing sugarcane products with fossil fuel products, 34313.4.2 Influence of land-use change, 34413.4.3 Comparing sugarcane with other biomass feedstock, 34513.4.4 Attributes for GHG abatement, 34813.5 Environmental trade-offs, 34913.5.1 Land use and associated environmental services, 34913.5.2 Water use, 35013.5.3 Water quality, 35013.5.4 Phosphorus depletion, 35113.5.5 Balancing the GHG abatement benefits with the environmental trade-offs, 35113.6 Production pathways that optimize GHG abatement, 35213.6.1 Production basis (dedicated vs. coproduction), 35213.6.2 Product outputs, 35213.6.3 Land used, 35413.7 Opportunities for further optimizing GHG abatement, 35413.7.1 Ecoefficient sugarcane growing, 35413.7.2 Utilization of harvest residues, 35513.7.3 New sugarcane varieties, 35513.8 Summary, 355References, 35614 Environmental sustainability assessment of sugarcane bioenergy, 363Shabbir H. Gheewala, Sébastien Bonnet and Thapat Silalertruksa14.1 Bioenergy and the sustainability challenge, 36314.2 Prospect of sugarcane bioenergy, 36414.3 Environmental sustainability assessment tools, 36514.4 Environmental sustainability assessment of sugarcane bioenergy: Case of Thailand, 36614.4.1 Background and policy context, 36614.4.2 Sugarcane farming and production system, 36614.4.3 Sugarcane farming and harvesting, 36714.4.4 Sugarcane milling, 36714.4.5 Ethanol conversion, 36814.4.6 Transport, 36814.5 Net energy balance and net energy ratio, 36914.6 Life cycle environmental impacts, 36914.7 Key environmental considerations for promoting sugarcane bioenergy, 372References, 376Index, 379