ABOUT THE AUTHORS Roger Bougie is the Academic Director of the Executive Master of Management and Organization at TIAS School for Business & Society (Tilburg University) and an Associate Professor in Research Methods. He holds a PhD in Marketing from Tilburg University and has more than two decades of experience teaching undergraduate, graduate, and executive programs. A recipient of multiple teaching awards, he has published extensively in peer-reviewed journals and co-authored books and articles on research methods, marketing, and managerial decision making in complex situations. Uma Sekaran was Professor Emerita of Management at Southern Illinois University at Carbondale. She earned her MBA from the University of Connecticut and her PhD from UCLA. A distinguished researcher, she authored or co-authored eight books, numerous book chapters, and more than 55 refereed journal articles. Renowned for her contributions to cross-cultural research, she received multiple awards for her teaching and research excellence from the Academy of Management and other professional organizations.

• Preface xxiAbout the Authors xxiv1 Introduction to Research 1Introduction 1Business Research 2Research and the Manager 3Types of Business Research: Applied and Basic 4Applied Research 5Basic or Fundamental Research 7Managers and Research 7Why Managers Need to Know About Research 7The Manager and the Consultant–Researcher 8Internal Versus External Consultants/Researchers 9Internal Consultants/Researchers 9Advantages of Internal Consultants/Researchers 9Disadvantages of Internal Consultants/Researchers 9External Consultants/Researchers 10Advantages of External Consultants/Researchers 10Disadvantages of External Consultants/Researchers 10Knowledge About Research and Managerial Effectiveness 11Ethics and Business Research 11Summary 12Discussion Questions 13Case: The Laroche Candy Company 14Case Questions 162 The Scientific Approach and Alternative Approaches to Investigation 17Introduction 17The Hall marks of Scientific Research 18Purposiveness 18Rigor 18Testability 19Replicability 19Precision and Confidence 19Objectivity 20Generalizability 20Parsimony 20The Hypothetico- Deductive Method 21The Seven- Step Process in the Hypothetico- Deductive Method 21Identify a Broad Problem Area 21Define The Research Problem 22Develop Hypotheses 22Determine Measures 22Data Collection 22Data Analysis 22Interpretation of Data 23Review of the Hypothetico- Deductive Method 23Alternative Approaches to Research 24Positivism 24Constructionism 24Critical Realism 25Pragmatism 25A Pragmatic Approach to Research 26Organizational Challenges and Opportunities 26Organizational Change: A Specific Case and Approach 27The Initial Stages: The Manager Starts Exploring 29The Initial Stages: Briefing the Researcher 30Defining the Organizational Problem 31Defining the Research Problem 32Developing a Research Proposal 32A Critical Literature Review 32The Planning Collection and Analyses of Data 32Conclusions and Recommenda tions 33The Final Stages: The Manager Makes a Decision and Acts 33Comparing Two Important Approaches 33Conclusion 34Summary 34Discussion Questions 353 Defining the Management Problem 37Introduction 37Organizational Challenges and Opportunities 37The First Step of the Research Process: Exploration 38To Conduct Research or Not 38Defining the Management Problem 39Applied Research in Support of a Process of Planned Change 40The First Step of the Research Process in Change Situations: Exploration 40The Second Step of the Research Process: Diagnosis 42The Constraints or Preconditions That Should be Taken into Account 46Different Types of Problems and Solutions to These Problems 46Providing Feedback to the Client Organization 49Managerial Implications 49Summary 50Discussion Questions 51Appendix: Background Information on the Organization 524 Defining the Research Problem 54Introduction 54Defining the Research Problem 54What Makes a Good Problem Statement? 54Basic Types of Questions: Exploratory Descriptive and Causal Questions 58Exploratory Research Questions 58Descriptive Research Questions 59Causal Research Questions 60The Research Proposal 61Managerial Implications 64Ethical Issues in the Preliminary Stages of Investigation 64Summary 65Discussion Questions 655 The Critical Literature Review 67Introduction 67Definition and Functions of the Critical Literature Review 67How to Approach the Literature Review 69Data Sources 69Textbooks 69Journals 69Theses 69Conference Proceedings 69Unpublished Manuscripts 69The Internet 70AI Tools 70Searching for Literature 70Evaluating the Literature 71Reading Strategies 72Documenting the Literature Review 72Citing Sources in Your Literature Review 76Reference and Citation Management Programs 78On the Use of AI and Large Language Models 78Ethical Issues 79Final Note 80Summary 80Discussion Questions 81Practice Project 82Appendix: Some Online Resources Useful for Business Research 83Online Databases 83On the Web 84Accounting and Finance 84Economics and Econometrics 84Environmental Science 85Marketing 85Organizational Behavior and Human Resources 86Strategic Management and Management Science 86Tourism Leisure and Hospitality Management 86Overview of Academic Top Journals Per Subject Area 87Accounting and Finance 87Economics and Econometrics 87Environmental Science 87Management Science and Operations Research 88Marketing 88Organizational Behavior and Human Resources 89Strategic Management 89Tourism Leisure and Hospitality Management 89Apa Guidelines 90APA Format for Referencing Relevant Articles 90Specimen Format For Citing Different Types of References (Apa Format) 90Referencing and Quotation in the Literature Review Section 91Quotations in Text 92Sample Apa Style Student Papers 946 Theoretical Framework and Hypothesis Development 95Introduction 95The Need for a Theoretical Framework 96Variables 97Dependent Variable 97Independent Variable 98Moderating Variable 100The Distinction Between an Independent Variable and a Moderating Variable 101Mediating Variable 103How Theory Is Generated 104The Components of the Theoretical Framework 105Hypothesis Development 106Definition of a Hypothesis 106Statement of Hypotheses: Formats 107If–then Statements 107Directional and Nondirectional Hypotheses 107Null and Alternate Hypotheses 108Managerial Implications 112Summary 113Discussion Questions 113Practice Project 1157 Elements of Research Design 116Introduction 116The Research Design 116Elements of Research Design 117Research Strategies 117Experiments 118Survey Research 118Ethnography 118Case Studies 119Grounded Theory 119Action Research 120Qualitative Versus Quantitative Research 120Extent of Researcher Interference With the Study 122Study Setting: Contrived and Noncontrived 123Unit of Analysis: Individuals Dyads Groups Organizations Cultures 125Time Horizon: Cross- Sectional Versus Longitudinal Studies 127Cross- Sectional Studies 127Longitudinal Studies 127Trade- Offs and Compro mises 128Managerial Implications 129Summary 129Discussion Questions 1308 Interviews 131Introduction 131Primary Data Collection Methods 131Interviews 132Unstructured and Semi-Structured Interviews 133Unstructured Interviews 133Semi- Structured Interviews 133Training Interviewers 134Some Tips to Follow When Interviewing 135Establishing Credibility and Rapport and Motivating Individuals to Respond 135The Questioning Technique 136Review of Tips to Follow When Interviewing 137Face- To- Face Online and Telephone Interviews 137Face-to- Face Interviews: Advantages and Disadvantages 138Online Interviews: Advantages and Disadvantages 138Telephone Interviews: Advantages and Disadvantages 138Personal and Group Interviews 139Focus Groups 139Expert Panels 140Advantages and Disad vantages of Interviews 141Summary 142Discussion Questions 1429 Observation 144Introduction 144Definition and Purpose of Observation 145Four Key Dimensions That Characterize the Type of Observation 145Controlled Versus Uncontrolled Observational Studies 145Participant Versus Non- Participant Observation 146Structured Versus Unstructured Observational Studies 146Concealed Versus Unconcealed Observation 147Online Observation 147Two Important Approaches to Observation 148Participant Observation: Introduction 148The Participatory Aspect of Participant Observation 149The Observation Aspect of Participant Observation 150What to Observe 151Structured Observation: Introduction 153The Use of Coding Schemes in Structured Observation 153Advantages and Disadvantages of Observation 155Summary 157Discussion Questions 15710 Administering Questionnaires 159Introduction 159Types of Questionnaires 159Personally Administered Questionnaires 160Self- Administered Questionnaires 160Mail Questionnaires 160Electronic and Online Questionnaires 160Guidelines For Questionnaire Design 162Principles of Measurement 162Principles of Wording 163Content and Purpose of the Questions 164Language and Wording of the Questionnaire 164Type and Form of Questions 164General Appearance or ‘Getup’ of the Questionnaire 166A Good Introduction 166Organizing Questions Giving Instructions and Guidance and Good Alignment 167Personal Data 168Information on Income and Other Sensitive Personal Data 168Open- Ended Question at the End 169Concluding the Questionnaire 169Sequencing of Questions 169Administrative and Classification Questions 170Review of Questionnaire Design 171Pretesting of Structured Questions 171Electronic Questionnaire and Survey Design 171International Dimensions of Surveys 172Special Issues in Instrumentation for Cross- Cultural Research 172Other Issues in Cross- Cultural Data Collection 173Review of the Advantages and Disadvan tages of Different Data Collection Methods and When to Use Each 173Multimethods of Data Collection 174A Brief Introduction of Codebooks 174Managerial Implications 174Ethics in Data Collection 175Ethics and the Researcher 175Ethical Behavior of Respondents 176Summary 176Discussion Questions 17711 Experimental Designs 180Introduction 180The Lab Experiment 183Control 183Manipulation 183Controlling the Contaminating Confounding or “Nuisance” Variables 185Matching Groups 185Randomization 185Internal Validity of Lab Experiments 186External Validity or Generalizability of Lab Experiments 186The Field Experiment 187External and Internal Validity in Experiments 187Trade- Off Between Internal and External Validity 187Factors Affecting the Validity of Experiments 188History Effects 188Maturation Effects 189Testing Effects 189Selection Bias Effects 190Mortality Effects 190Statistical Regression Effects 191Instrumentation Effects 191Identifying Threats to Validity 192Review of Factors Affecting Internal and External Validity 193Types of Experimental Design and Validity 193Quasi- Experimental Designs 194Pre- test and Post- test Experimental Group Design 194Post- tests Only with Experimental and Control Groups 194Time Series Design 195True Experimental Designs 196Pre- test and Post- test Experimental and Control Group Design 196Solomon Four- Group Design 197Double- Blind Studies 198Ex Post Facto Designs 199Simulation 199Ethical Issues in Experimen tal Design Research 199Managerial Implications 200Summary 202Discussion Questions 203Appendix: Further Experimental Designs 204The Completely Randomized Design 204Randomized Block Design 205Latin Square Design 205Factorial Design 20612 Measurement of Variables: Operational Definition 207Introduction 207How Variables are Measured 207Operational Definition (Operationalization) 209Operationalization: Dimensions and Elements 211Operationalizing the (Multidimensional) Construct of Achievement Motivation 211What Operationalization Is Not 213Review of Operationalization 213International Dimensions of Operationalization 214Summary 214Discussion Questions 21413 Measurement of Variables: Scaling Reliability and Validity 216Introduction 216Four Types of Scales 216Nominal Scale 217Ordinal Scale 218Interval Scale 219Ratio Scale 219Ordinal or Interval? 220Rating Scales 221Dichotomous Scale 221Category Scale 221Semantic Differential Scale 222Numerical Scale 222Itemized Rating Scale 222Likert Scale 223Fixed or Constant Sum Scale 223Stapel Scale 224Graphic Rating Scale 224Consensus Scale 225Other Scales 225Ranking Scales 225Paired Comparison 225Forced Choice 226Comparative Scale 226International Dimensions of Scaling 226Goodness of Measures 226Validity 227Content Validity 227Criterion- Related Validity 228Construct Validity 228Reliability 230Stability of Measures 230Internal Consistency of Measures 230Reflective Versus Formative Measurement Scales 231What is a Reflective Scale? 231What is a Formative Scale and Why Do the Items of a Formative Scale Not Necessarily Hang Together? 231Summary 232Discussion Questions 233Appendix: Examples of Some Measures 234Measures From Behavioural Finance Research 234Information Overload 234Orientation Toward Finance: Interest in Financial Information 235Measures From Management Accounting Research 235Measures From Management Research 235Organizational Resilience 235Job Involvement 236Career Salience 236Measures From Marketing Research 237Complaint Success Likelihood 237SERVQUAL: A Multidimensional Scale to Capture Customer Perceptions and Expectations of Service Quality 237Perceived Authenticity of a Social Media Influencer 23814 Sampling 239Introduction 239Population Element Sample Sampling Unit and Subject 240Population 240Element 240Sample 241Sampling Unit Unit of Observation and Unit of Analysis 241Subject 242Sample Data and Popula tion Values 242Parameters 242Representativeness of Samples 242Normality of Distributions 243The Sampling Process 244Defining the Population 244Determining the Sample Frame 244Determining the Sampling Design 244Determining the Sample Size 245Executing the Sampling Process 245Probability Sampling 246Unrestricted or Simple Random Sampling 246Restricted or Complex Probability Sampling 247Systematic Sampling 247Stratified Random Sampling 247Cluster Sampling 249Double Sampling 250Review of Probability Sampling Designs 250Non- Probability Sampling 251Convenience Sampling 251Purposive Sampling 251Judgment Sampling 251Quota Sampling 252Review of Non- Probability Sampling Designs 252Intermezzo: Examples of When Certain Sampling Designs Would be Appropriate 254Simple Random Sampling 254Stratified Random Sampling 255Systematic Sampling 256Cluster Sampling 256Area Sampling 257Double Sampling 257Convenience Sampling 257Judgment Sampling: One Type of Purposive Sampling 258Quota Sampling: A Second Type of Purposive Sampling 258Issues of Precision V Confidence in Determining Sample Size 259Precision 259Confidence 260Sample Data Precision and Confidence in Estimation 260Trade- Off Between Confidence and Precision 261Sample Data and Hypoth esis Testing 262The Sample Size 264Determining the Sample Size 264Sample Size and Type II Errors 265Statistical and Practical Significance 266Rules of Thumb 266Efficiency in Sampling 267Sampling as Related to Qualitative Studies 267Managerial Implications 268Summary 268Discussion Questions 27015 Quantitative Data Analysis 272Introduction 272Choosing Your Data Analysis Software 274Consulting Your Codebook 274Coding the Responses 276Data Entry 278Editing Data 278Getting a Feel for the Data 281Frequencies 282Bar Charts and Pie Charts 283Measures of Central Tendency and Dispersion 283Measures of Central Tendency 283Measures of Dispersion 285Relationships Between Variables 288Relationship Between Two Nominal Variables: χ 2 Test 288Correlations 289Excelsior Enterprises: Descriptive Statistics Part 1 290Testing the Goodness of Measures 292Reliability 292Excelsior Enterprises: Checking the Reliability of the Multi- item Measures 292Validity 294Excelsior Enterprises: Descriptive Statistics Part 2 294Summary 297Discussion Questions 29716 Quantitative Data Analysis: Hypothesis Testing 300Introduction 300Type I Errors Type II Errors and Statistical Power 300Choosing the Appropriate Statistical Technique 302Testing a Hypothesis About a Single Mean 303Testing Hypotheses About Two Related Means 304Testing Hypotheses About Two Unrelated Means 308Testing Hypotheses About Several Means 309Regression Analysis 310Standardized Regression Coefficients 313Regression with Dummy Variables 313Multicollinearity 314Testing Moderation Using Regression Analysis: Interaction Effects 314Other Multivariate Tests and Analyses 317Discriminant Analysis 317Logistic Regression Analysis 318Conjoint Analysis 318Two- Way ANOVA 319Manova 319Canonical Correlation 320Excelsior Enterprises: Hypothesis Testing 321Overall Interpretation and Recommendations to the President 322Data Mining and Operations Research 323Some Software Packages Useful for Data Analysis 324Summary 325Discussion Questions 32517 Qualitative Data Analysis 328Introduction 328Important Approaches to Qualitative Data Analysis 328Inductive and Deductive Coding 329Coding in Grounded Theory 329Open Coding 330Axial Coding 330Selective Coding 331Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research 342Other Methods of Gathering and Analyzing Qualitative Data 344Content Analysis 344Narrative Analysis 344Discourse Analysis 345Software to Analyze Qualitative Data 345Big Data 345Summary 346Discussion Questions 34718 Conclusions 348Introduction 348Conclusions and Recommendations: Where Your Journey as a Researcher Ends 349Writing Down Your Conclusions 349Different Ways of Looking at Conclusions 350Characteristics of Conclusions 351Developing an Argument 353Different Types of Arguments 354One the Importance of Using the Correct Type of Argumentation 357Incorrect or Flawed Forms of Reasoning 357Managerial Implications 358Summary 358Discussion Questions 36019 The Research Report 362Introduction 362The Written Report 362The Purpose of the Written Report 363The Audience for the Written Report 363Characteristics of a Well- Written Report 363A Structured Approach to Writing 364Contents of an Applied Research Report 365The Title and the Title Page 365Preface 366The Authorization Letter 366The Executive Summary or Abstract 366Table of Contents 367List of Tables Figures and Other Materials 368The Introductory Section 368The Body of the Report 368The Final Part of the Report 369References 370Appendices 371On the Structure of Academic Research Papers 372Oral Presentation 372Deciding On the Content 373Visual Aids 373The Presenter 374The Presentation 374Handling Questions 374Summary 375Discussion Questions 375Appendix 1: Different Routes and Structures of a Master’s Thesis 376Preface 377Abstract or Management Summary 377Table of Contents 377Introduction 377Case Organization 377Definition Management Problem 377Definition Research Problem 377Scope 378Relevance 378Methods 378Reading Guide 378Theoretical Framework 378Methods 378Procedure 378Sample 379Operationalizations 379Analyses 379Validity and Reliability 379Results 379Conclusions and Recommendations 379Discussion 379Theoretical and Practical Implications 379Limitations 380Future Research 380Appendix 2: Checklist for Theses 381Appendix 3: Factors Affecting the Upward Mobility of Women in Public Accounting 383A Final Note to Students 387Statistical Tables 389Glossary 399Bibliography 409Index 417

ABOUT THE AUTHORS Roger Bougie is the Academic Director of the Executive Master of Management and Organization at TIAS School for Business & Society (Tilburg University) and an Associate Professor in Research Methods. He holds a PhD in Marketing from Tilburg University and has more than two decades of experience teaching undergraduate, graduate, and executive programs. A recipient of multiple teaching awards, he has published extensively in peer-reviewed journals and co-authored books and articles on research methods, marketing, and managerial decision making in complex situations. Uma Sekaran was Professor Emerita of Management at Southern Illinois University at Carbondale. She earned her MBA from the University of Connecticut and her PhD from UCLA. A distinguished researcher, she authored or co-authored eight books, numerous book chapters, and more than 55 refereed journal articles. Renowned for her contributions to cross-cultural research, she received multiple awards for her teaching and research excellence from the Academy of Management and other professional organizations.

• Preface xxiAbout the Authors xxiv1 Introduction to Research 1Introduction 1Business Research 2Research and the Manager 3Types of Business Research: Applied and Basic 4Applied Research 5Basic or Fundamental Research 7Managers and Research 7Why Managers Need to Know About Research 7The Manager and the Consultant–Researcher 8Internal Versus External Consultants/Researchers 9Internal Consultants/Researchers 9Advantages of Internal Consultants/Researchers 9Disadvantages of Internal Consultants/Researchers 9External Consultants/Researchers 10Advantages of External Consultants/Researchers 10Disadvantages of External Consultants/Researchers 10Knowledge About Research and Managerial Effectiveness 11Ethics and Business Research 11Summary 12Discussion Questions 13Case: The Laroche Candy Company 14Case Questions 162 The Scientific Approach and Alternative Approaches to Investigation 17Introduction 17The Hall marks of Scientific Research 18Purposiveness 18Rigor 18Testability 19Replicability 19Precision and Confidence 19Objectivity 20Generalizability 20Parsimony 20The Hypothetico- Deductive Method 21The Seven- Step Process in the Hypothetico- Deductive Method 21Identify a Broad Problem Area 21Define The Research Problem 22Develop Hypotheses 22Determine Measures 22Data Collection 22Data Analysis 22Interpretation of Data 23Review of the Hypothetico- Deductive Method 23Alternative Approaches to Research 24Positivism 24Constructionism 24Critical Realism 25Pragmatism 25A Pragmatic Approach to Research 26Organizational Challenges and Opportunities 26Organizational Change: A Specific Case and Approach 27The Initial Stages: The Manager Starts Exploring 29The Initial Stages: Briefing the Researcher 30Defining the Organizational Problem 31Defining the Research Problem 32Developing a Research Proposal 32A Critical Literature Review 32The Planning Collection and Analyses of Data 32Conclusions and Recommenda tions 33The Final Stages: The Manager Makes a Decision and Acts 33Comparing Two Important Approaches 33Conclusion 34Summary 34Discussion Questions 353 Defining the Management Problem 37Introduction 37Organizational Challenges and Opportunities 37The First Step of the Research Process: Exploration 38To Conduct Research or Not 38Defining the Management Problem 39Applied Research in Support of a Process of Planned Change 40The First Step of the Research Process in Change Situations: Exploration 40The Second Step of the Research Process: Diagnosis 42The Constraints or Preconditions That Should be Taken into Account 46Different Types of Problems and Solutions to These Problems 46Providing Feedback to the Client Organization 49Managerial Implications 49Summary 50Discussion Questions 51Appendix: Background Information on the Organization 524 Defining the Research Problem 54Introduction 54Defining the Research Problem 54What Makes a Good Problem Statement? 54Basic Types of Questions: Exploratory Descriptive and Causal Questions 58Exploratory Research Questions 58Descriptive Research Questions 59Causal Research Questions 60The Research Proposal 61Managerial Implications 64Ethical Issues in the Preliminary Stages of Investigation 64Summary 65Discussion Questions 655 The Critical Literature Review 67Introduction 67Definition and Functions of the Critical Literature Review 67How to Approach the Literature Review 69Data Sources 69Textbooks 69Journals 69Theses 69Conference Proceedings 69Unpublished Manuscripts 69The Internet 70AI Tools 70Searching for Literature 70Evaluating the Literature 71Reading Strategies 72Documenting the Literature Review 72Citing Sources in Your Literature Review 76Reference and Citation Management Programs 78On the Use of AI and Large Language Models 78Ethical Issues 79Final Note 80Summary 80Discussion Questions 81Practice Project 82Appendix: Some Online Resources Useful for Business Research 83Online Databases 83On the Web 84Accounting and Finance 84Economics and Econometrics 84Environmental Science 85Marketing 85Organizational Behavior and Human Resources 86Strategic Management and Management Science 86Tourism Leisure and Hospitality Management 86Overview of Academic Top Journals Per Subject Area 87Accounting and Finance 87Economics and Econometrics 87Environmental Science 87Management Science and Operations Research 88Marketing 88Organizational Behavior and Human Resources 89Strategic Management 89Tourism Leisure and Hospitality Management 89Apa Guidelines 90APA Format for Referencing Relevant Articles 90Specimen Format For Citing Different Types of References (Apa Format) 90Referencing and Quotation in the Literature Review Section 91Quotations in Text 92Sample Apa Style Student Papers 946 Theoretical Framework and Hypothesis Development 95Introduction 95The Need for a Theoretical Framework 96Variables 97Dependent Variable 97Independent Variable 98Moderating Variable 100The Distinction Between an Independent Variable and a Moderating Variable 101Mediating Variable 103How Theory Is Generated 104The Components of the Theoretical Framework 105Hypothesis Development 106Definition of a Hypothesis 106Statement of Hypotheses: Formats 107If–then Statements 107Directional and Nondirectional Hypotheses 107Null and Alternate Hypotheses 108Managerial Implications 112Summary 113Discussion Questions 113Practice Project 1157 Elements of Research Design 116Introduction 116The Research Design 116Elements of Research Design 117Research Strategies 117Experiments 118Survey Research 118Ethnography 118Case Studies 119Grounded Theory 119Action Research 120Qualitative Versus Quantitative Research 120Extent of Researcher Interference With the Study 122Study Setting: Contrived and Noncontrived 123Unit of Analysis: Individuals Dyads Groups Organizations Cultures 125Time Horizon: Cross- Sectional Versus Longitudinal Studies 127Cross- Sectional Studies 127Longitudinal Studies 127Trade- Offs and Compro mises 128Managerial Implications 129Summary 129Discussion Questions 1308 Interviews 131Introduction 131Primary Data Collection Methods 131Interviews 132Unstructured and Semi-Structured Interviews 133Unstructured Interviews 133Semi- Structured Interviews 133Training Interviewers 134Some Tips to Follow When Interviewing 135Establishing Credibility and Rapport and Motivating Individuals to Respond 135The Questioning Technique 136Review of Tips to Follow When Interviewing 137Face- To- Face Online and Telephone Interviews 137Face-to- Face Interviews: Advantages and Disadvantages 138Online Interviews: Advantages and Disadvantages 138Telephone Interviews: Advantages and Disadvantages 138Personal and Group Interviews 139Focus Groups 139Expert Panels 140Advantages and Disad vantages of Interviews 141Summary 142Discussion Questions 1429 Observation 144Introduction 144Definition and Purpose of Observation 145Four Key Dimensions That Characterize the Type of Observation 145Controlled Versus Uncontrolled Observational Studies 145Participant Versus Non- Participant Observation 146Structured Versus Unstructured Observational Studies 146Concealed Versus Unconcealed Observation 147Online Observation 147Two Important Approaches to Observation 148Participant Observation: Introduction 148The Participatory Aspect of Participant Observation 149The Observation Aspect of Participant Observation 150What to Observe 151Structured Observation: Introduction 153The Use of Coding Schemes in Structured Observation 153Advantages and Disadvantages of Observation 155Summary 157Discussion Questions 15710 Administering Questionnaires 159Introduction 159Types of Questionnaires 159Personally Administered Questionnaires 160Self- Administered Questionnaires 160Mail Questionnaires 160Electronic and Online Questionnaires 160Guidelines For Questionnaire Design 162Principles of Measurement 162Principles of Wording 163Content and Purpose of the Questions 164Language and Wording of the Questionnaire 164Type and Form of Questions 164General Appearance or ‘Getup’ of the Questionnaire 166A Good Introduction 166Organizing Questions Giving Instructions and Guidance and Good Alignment 167Personal Data 168Information on Income and Other Sensitive Personal Data 168Open- Ended Question at the End 169Concluding the Questionnaire 169Sequencing of Questions 169Administrative and Classification Questions 170Review of Questionnaire Design 171Pretesting of Structured Questions 171Electronic Questionnaire and Survey Design 171International Dimensions of Surveys 172Special Issues in Instrumentation for Cross- Cultural Research 172Other Issues in Cross- Cultural Data Collection 173Review of the Advantages and Disadvan tages of Different Data Collection Methods and When to Use Each 173Multimethods of Data Collection 174A Brief Introduction of Codebooks 174Managerial Implications 174Ethics in Data Collection 175Ethics and the Researcher 175Ethical Behavior of Respondents 176Summary 176Discussion Questions 17711 Experimental Designs 180Introduction 180The Lab Experiment 183Control 183Manipulation 183Controlling the Contaminating Confounding or “Nuisance” Variables 185Matching Groups 185Randomization 185Internal Validity of Lab Experiments 186External Validity or Generalizability of Lab Experiments 186The Field Experiment 187External and Internal Validity in Experiments 187Trade- Off Between Internal and External Validity 187Factors Affecting the Validity of Experiments 188History Effects 188Maturation Effects 189Testing Effects 189Selection Bias Effects 190Mortality Effects 190Statistical Regression Effects 191Instrumentation Effects 191Identifying Threats to Validity 192Review of Factors Affecting Internal and External Validity 193Types of Experimental Design and Validity 193Quasi- Experimental Designs 194Pre- test and Post- test Experimental Group Design 194Post- tests Only with Experimental and Control Groups 194Time Series Design 195True Experimental Designs 196Pre- test and Post- test Experimental and Control Group Design 196Solomon Four- Group Design 197Double- Blind Studies 198Ex Post Facto Designs 199Simulation 199Ethical Issues in Experimen tal Design Research 199Managerial Implications 200Summary 202Discussion Questions 203Appendix: Further Experimental Designs 204The Completely Randomized Design 204Randomized Block Design 205Latin Square Design 205Factorial Design 20612 Measurement of Variables: Operational Definition 207Introduction 207How Variables are Measured 207Operational Definition (Operationalization) 209Operationalization: Dimensions and Elements 211Operationalizing the (Multidimensional) Construct of Achievement Motivation 211What Operationalization Is Not 213Review of Operationalization 213International Dimensions of Operationalization 214Summary 214Discussion Questions 21413 Measurement of Variables: Scaling Reliability and Validity 216Introduction 216Four Types of Scales 216Nominal Scale 217Ordinal Scale 218Interval Scale 219Ratio Scale 219Ordinal or Interval? 220Rating Scales 221Dichotomous Scale 221Category Scale 221Semantic Differential Scale 222Numerical Scale 222Itemized Rating Scale 222Likert Scale 223Fixed or Constant Sum Scale 223Stapel Scale 224Graphic Rating Scale 224Consensus Scale 225Other Scales 225Ranking Scales 225Paired Comparison 225Forced Choice 226Comparative Scale 226International Dimensions of Scaling 226Goodness of Measures 226Validity 227Content Validity 227Criterion- Related Validity 228Construct Validity 228Reliability 230Stability of Measures 230Internal Consistency of Measures 230Reflective Versus Formative Measurement Scales 231What is a Reflective Scale? 231What is a Formative Scale and Why Do the Items of a Formative Scale Not Necessarily Hang Together? 231Summary 232Discussion Questions 233Appendix: Examples of Some Measures 234Measures From Behavioural Finance Research 234Information Overload 234Orientation Toward Finance: Interest in Financial Information 235Measures From Management Accounting Research 235Measures From Management Research 235Organizational Resilience 235Job Involvement 236Career Salience 236Measures From Marketing Research 237Complaint Success Likelihood 237SERVQUAL: A Multidimensional Scale to Capture Customer Perceptions and Expectations of Service Quality 237Perceived Authenticity of a Social Media Influencer 23814 Sampling 239Introduction 239Population Element Sample Sampling Unit and Subject 240Population 240Element 240Sample 241Sampling Unit Unit of Observation and Unit of Analysis 241Subject 242Sample Data and Popula tion Values 242Parameters 242Representativeness of Samples 242Normality of Distributions 243The Sampling Process 244Defining the Population 244Determining the Sample Frame 244Determining the Sampling Design 244Determining the Sample Size 245Executing the Sampling Process 245Probability Sampling 246Unrestricted or Simple Random Sampling 246Restricted or Complex Probability Sampling 247Systematic Sampling 247Stratified Random Sampling 247Cluster Sampling 249Double Sampling 250Review of Probability Sampling Designs 250Non- Probability Sampling 251Convenience Sampling 251Purposive Sampling 251Judgment Sampling 251Quota Sampling 252Review of Non- Probability Sampling Designs 252Intermezzo: Examples of When Certain Sampling Designs Would be Appropriate 254Simple Random Sampling 254Stratified Random Sampling 255Systematic Sampling 256Cluster Sampling 256Area Sampling 257Double Sampling 257Convenience Sampling 257Judgment Sampling: One Type of Purposive Sampling 258Quota Sampling: A Second Type of Purposive Sampling 258Issues of Precision V Confidence in Determining Sample Size 259Precision 259Confidence 260Sample Data Precision and Confidence in Estimation 260Trade- Off Between Confidence and Precision 261Sample Data and Hypoth esis Testing 262The Sample Size 264Determining the Sample Size 264Sample Size and Type II Errors 265Statistical and Practical Significance 266Rules of Thumb 266Efficiency in Sampling 267Sampling as Related to Qualitative Studies 267Managerial Implications 268Summary 268Discussion Questions 27015 Quantitative Data Analysis 272Introduction 272Choosing Your Data Analysis Software 274Consulting Your Codebook 274Coding the Responses 276Data Entry 278Editing Data 278Getting a Feel for the Data 281Frequencies 282Bar Charts and Pie Charts 283Measures of Central Tendency and Dispersion 283Measures of Central Tendency 283Measures of Dispersion 285Relationships Between Variables 288Relationship Between Two Nominal Variables: χ 2 Test 288Correlations 289Excelsior Enterprises: Descriptive Statistics Part 1 290Testing the Goodness of Measures 292Reliability 292Excelsior Enterprises: Checking the Reliability of the Multi- item Measures 292Validity 294Excelsior Enterprises: Descriptive Statistics Part 2 294Summary 297Discussion Questions 29716 Quantitative Data Analysis: Hypothesis Testing 300Introduction 300Type I Errors Type II Errors and Statistical Power 300Choosing the Appropriate Statistical Technique 302Testing a Hypothesis About a Single Mean 303Testing Hypotheses About Two Related Means 304Testing Hypotheses About Two Unrelated Means 308Testing Hypotheses About Several Means 309Regression Analysis 310Standardized Regression Coefficients 313Regression with Dummy Variables 313Multicollinearity 314Testing Moderation Using Regression Analysis: Interaction Effects 314Other Multivariate Tests and Analyses 317Discriminant Analysis 317Logistic Regression Analysis 318Conjoint Analysis 318Two- Way ANOVA 319Manova 319Canonical Correlation 320Excelsior Enterprises: Hypothesis Testing 321Overall Interpretation and Recommendations to the President 322Data Mining and Operations Research 323Some Software Packages Useful for Data Analysis 324Summary 325Discussion Questions 32517 Qualitative Data Analysis 328Introduction 328Important Approaches to Qualitative Data Analysis 328Inductive and Deductive Coding 329Coding in Grounded Theory 329Open Coding 330Axial Coding 330Selective Coding 331Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research 342Other Methods of Gathering and Analyzing Qualitative Data 344Content Analysis 344Narrative Analysis 344Discourse Analysis 345Software to Analyze Qualitative Data 345Big Data 345Summary 346Discussion Questions 34718 Conclusions 348Introduction 348Conclusions and Recommendations: Where Your Journey as a Researcher Ends 349Writing Down Your Conclusions 349Different Ways of Looking at Conclusions 350Characteristics of Conclusions 351Developing an Argument 353Different Types of Arguments 354One the Importance of Using the Correct Type of Argumentation 357Incorrect or Flawed Forms of Reasoning 357Managerial Implications 358Summary 358Discussion Questions 36019 The Research Report 362Introduction 362The Written Report 362The Purpose of the Written Report 363The Audience for the Written Report 363Characteristics of a Well- Written Report 363A Structured Approach to Writing 364Contents of an Applied Research Report 365The Title and the Title Page 365Preface 366The Authorization Letter 366The Executive Summary or Abstract 366Table of Contents 367List of Tables Figures and Other Materials 368The Introductory Section 368The Body of the Report 368The Final Part of the Report 369References 370Appendices 371On the Structure of Academic Research Papers 372Oral Presentation 372Deciding On the Content 373Visual Aids 373The Presenter 374The Presentation 374Handling Questions 374Summary 375Discussion Questions 375Appendix 1: Different Routes and Structures of a Master’s Thesis 376Preface 377Abstract or Management Summary 377Table of Contents 377Introduction 377Case Organization 377Definition Management Problem 377Definition Research Problem 377Scope 378Relevance 378Methods 378Reading Guide 378Theoretical Framework 378Methods 378Procedure 378Sample 379Operationalizations 379Analyses 379Validity and Reliability 379Results 379Conclusions and Recommendations 379Discussion 379Theoretical and Practical Implications 379Limitations 380Future Research 380Appendix 2: Checklist for Theses 381Appendix 3: Factors Affecting the Upward Mobility of Women in Public Accounting 383A Final Note to Students 387Statistical Tables 389Glossary 399Bibliography 409Index 417

ABOUT THE AUTHORS Roger Bougie is the Academic Director of the Executive Master of Management and Organization at TIAS School for Business & Society (Tilburg University) and an Associate Professor in Research Methods. He holds a PhD in Marketing from Tilburg University and has more than two decades of experience teaching undergraduate, graduate, and executive programs. A recipient of multiple teaching awards, he has published extensively in peer-reviewed journals and co-authored books and articles on research methods, marketing, and managerial decision making in complex situations. Uma Sekaran was Professor Emerita of Management at Southern Illinois University at Carbondale. She earned her MBA from the University of Connecticut and her PhD from UCLA. A distinguished researcher, she authored or co-authored eight books, numerous book chapters, and more than 55 refereed journal articles. Renowned for her contributions to cross-cultural research, she received multiple awards for her teaching and research excellence from the Academy of Management and other professional organizations.

• Preface xxiAbout the Authors xxiv1 Introduction to Research 1Introduction 1Business Research 2Research and the Manager 3Types of Business Research: Applied and Basic 4Applied Research 5Basic or Fundamental Research 7Managers and Research 7Why Managers Need to Know About Research 7The Manager and the Consultant–Researcher 8Internal Versus External Consultants/Researchers 9Internal Consultants/Researchers 9Advantages of Internal Consultants/Researchers 9Disadvantages of Internal Consultants/Researchers 9External Consultants/Researchers 10Advantages of External Consultants/Researchers 10Disadvantages of External Consultants/Researchers 10Knowledge About Research and Managerial Effectiveness 11Ethics and Business Research 11Summary 12Discussion Questions 13Case: The Laroche Candy Company 14Case Questions 162 The Scientific Approach and Alternative Approaches to Investigation 17Introduction 17The Hall marks of Scientific Research 18Purposiveness 18Rigor 18Testability 19Replicability 19Precision and Confidence 19Objectivity 20Generalizability 20Parsimony 20The Hypothetico- Deductive Method 21The Seven- Step Process in the Hypothetico- Deductive Method 21Identify a Broad Problem Area 21Define The Research Problem 22Develop Hypotheses 22Determine Measures 22Data Collection 22Data Analysis 22Interpretation of Data 23Review of the Hypothetico- Deductive Method 23Alternative Approaches to Research 24Positivism 24Constructionism 24Critical Realism 25Pragmatism 25A Pragmatic Approach to Research 26Organizational Challenges and Opportunities 26Organizational Change: A Specific Case and Approach 27The Initial Stages: The Manager Starts Exploring 29The Initial Stages: Briefing the Researcher 30Defining the Organizational Problem 31Defining the Research Problem 32Developing a Research Proposal 32A Critical Literature Review 32The Planning Collection and Analyses of Data 32Conclusions and Recommenda tions 33The Final Stages: The Manager Makes a Decision and Acts 33Comparing Two Important Approaches 33Conclusion 34Summary 34Discussion Questions 353 Defining the Management Problem 37Introduction 37Organizational Challenges and Opportunities 37The First Step of the Research Process: Exploration 38To Conduct Research or Not 38Defining the Management Problem 39Applied Research in Support of a Process of Planned Change 40The First Step of the Research Process in Change Situations: Exploration 40The Second Step of the Research Process: Diagnosis 42The Constraints or Preconditions That Should be Taken into Account 46Different Types of Problems and Solutions to These Problems 46Providing Feedback to the Client Organization 49Managerial Implications 49Summary 50Discussion Questions 51Appendix: Background Information on the Organization 524 Defining the Research Problem 54Introduction 54Defining the Research Problem 54What Makes a Good Problem Statement? 54Basic Types of Questions: Exploratory Descriptive and Causal Questions 58Exploratory Research Questions 58Descriptive Research Questions 59Causal Research Questions 60The Research Proposal 61Managerial Implications 64Ethical Issues in the Preliminary Stages of Investigation 64Summary 65Discussion Questions 655 The Critical Literature Review 67Introduction 67Definition and Functions of the Critical Literature Review 67How to Approach the Literature Review 69Data Sources 69Textbooks 69Journals 69Theses 69Conference Proceedings 69Unpublished Manuscripts 69The Internet 70AI Tools 70Searching for Literature 70Evaluating the Literature 71Reading Strategies 72Documenting the Literature Review 72Citing Sources in Your Literature Review 76Reference and Citation Management Programs 78On the Use of AI and Large Language Models 78Ethical Issues 79Final Note 80Summary 80Discussion Questions 81Practice Project 82Appendix: Some Online Resources Useful for Business Research 83Online Databases 83On the Web 84Accounting and Finance 84Economics and Econometrics 84Environmental Science 85Marketing 85Organizational Behavior and Human Resources 86Strategic Management and Management Science 86Tourism Leisure and Hospitality Management 86Overview of Academic Top Journals Per Subject Area 87Accounting and Finance 87Economics and Econometrics 87Environmental Science 87Management Science and Operations Research 88Marketing 88Organizational Behavior and Human Resources 89Strategic Management 89Tourism Leisure and Hospitality Management 89Apa Guidelines 90APA Format for Referencing Relevant Articles 90Specimen Format For Citing Different Types of References (Apa Format) 90Referencing and Quotation in the Literature Review Section 91Quotations in Text 92Sample Apa Style Student Papers 946 Theoretical Framework and Hypothesis Development 95Introduction 95The Need for a Theoretical Framework 96Variables 97Dependent Variable 97Independent Variable 98Moderating Variable 100The Distinction Between an Independent Variable and a Moderating Variable 101Mediating Variable 103How Theory Is Generated 104The Components of the Theoretical Framework 105Hypothesis Development 106Definition of a Hypothesis 106Statement of Hypotheses: Formats 107If–then Statements 107Directional and Nondirectional Hypotheses 107Null and Alternate Hypotheses 108Managerial Implications 112Summary 113Discussion Questions 113Practice Project 1157 Elements of Research Design 116Introduction 116The Research Design 116Elements of Research Design 117Research Strategies 117Experiments 118Survey Research 118Ethnography 118Case Studies 119Grounded Theory 119Action Research 120Qualitative Versus Quantitative Research 120Extent of Researcher Interference With the Study 122Study Setting: Contrived and Noncontrived 123Unit of Analysis: Individuals Dyads Groups Organizations Cultures 125Time Horizon: Cross- Sectional Versus Longitudinal Studies 127Cross- Sectional Studies 127Longitudinal Studies 127Trade- Offs and Compro mises 128Managerial Implications 129Summary 129Discussion Questions 1308 Interviews 131Introduction 131Primary Data Collection Methods 131Interviews 132Unstructured and Semi-Structured Interviews 133Unstructured Interviews 133Semi- Structured Interviews 133Training Interviewers 134Some Tips to Follow When Interviewing 135Establishing Credibility and Rapport and Motivating Individuals to Respond 135The Questioning Technique 136Review of Tips to Follow When Interviewing 137Face- To- Face Online and Telephone Interviews 137Face-to- Face Interviews: Advantages and Disadvantages 138Online Interviews: Advantages and Disadvantages 138Telephone Interviews: Advantages and Disadvantages 138Personal and Group Interviews 139Focus Groups 139Expert Panels 140Advantages and Disad vantages of Interviews 141Summary 142Discussion Questions 1429 Observation 144Introduction 144Definition and Purpose of Observation 145Four Key Dimensions That Characterize the Type of Observation 145Controlled Versus Uncontrolled Observational Studies 145Participant Versus Non- Participant Observation 146Structured Versus Unstructured Observational Studies 146Concealed Versus Unconcealed Observation 147Online Observation 147Two Important Approaches to Observation 148Participant Observation: Introduction 148The Participatory Aspect of Participant Observation 149The Observation Aspect of Participant Observation 150What to Observe 151Structured Observation: Introduction 153The Use of Coding Schemes in Structured Observation 153Advantages and Disadvantages of Observation 155Summary 157Discussion Questions 15710 Administering Questionnaires 159Introduction 159Types of Questionnaires 159Personally Administered Questionnaires 160Self- Administered Questionnaires 160Mail Questionnaires 160Electronic and Online Questionnaires 160Guidelines For Questionnaire Design 162Principles of Measurement 162Principles of Wording 163Content and Purpose of the Questions 164Language and Wording of the Questionnaire 164Type and Form of Questions 164General Appearance or ‘Getup’ of the Questionnaire 166A Good Introduction 166Organizing Questions Giving Instructions and Guidance and Good Alignment 167Personal Data 168Information on Income and Other Sensitive Personal Data 168Open- Ended Question at the End 169Concluding the Questionnaire 169Sequencing of Questions 169Administrative and Classification Questions 170Review of Questionnaire Design 171Pretesting of Structured Questions 171Electronic Questionnaire and Survey Design 171International Dimensions of Surveys 172Special Issues in Instrumentation for Cross- Cultural Research 172Other Issues in Cross- Cultural Data Collection 173Review of the Advantages and Disadvan tages of Different Data Collection Methods and When to Use Each 173Multimethods of Data Collection 174A Brief Introduction of Codebooks 174Managerial Implications 174Ethics in Data Collection 175Ethics and the Researcher 175Ethical Behavior of Respondents 176Summary 176Discussion Questions 17711 Experimental Designs 180Introduction 180The Lab Experiment 183Control 183Manipulation 183Controlling the Contaminating Confounding or “Nuisance” Variables 185Matching Groups 185Randomization 185Internal Validity of Lab Experiments 186External Validity or Generalizability of Lab Experiments 186The Field Experiment 187External and Internal Validity in Experiments 187Trade- Off Between Internal and External Validity 187Factors Affecting the Validity of Experiments 188History Effects 188Maturation Effects 189Testing Effects 189Selection Bias Effects 190Mortality Effects 190Statistical Regression Effects 191Instrumentation Effects 191Identifying Threats to Validity 192Review of Factors Affecting Internal and External Validity 193Types of Experimental Design and Validity 193Quasi- Experimental Designs 194Pre- test and Post- test Experimental Group Design 194Post- tests Only with Experimental and Control Groups 194Time Series Design 195True Experimental Designs 196Pre- test and Post- test Experimental and Control Group Design 196Solomon Four- Group Design 197Double- Blind Studies 198Ex Post Facto Designs 199Simulation 199Ethical Issues in Experimen tal Design Research 199Managerial Implications 200Summary 202Discussion Questions 203Appendix: Further Experimental Designs 204The Completely Randomized Design 204Randomized Block Design 205Latin Square Design 205Factorial Design 20612 Measurement of Variables: Operational Definition 207Introduction 207How Variables are Measured 207Operational Definition (Operationalization) 209Operationalization: Dimensions and Elements 211Operationalizing the (Multidimensional) Construct of Achievement Motivation 211What Operationalization Is Not 213Review of Operationalization 213International Dimensions of Operationalization 214Summary 214Discussion Questions 21413 Measurement of Variables: Scaling Reliability and Validity 216Introduction 216Four Types of Scales 216Nominal Scale 217Ordinal Scale 218Interval Scale 219Ratio Scale 219Ordinal or Interval? 220Rating Scales 221Dichotomous Scale 221Category Scale 221Semantic Differential Scale 222Numerical Scale 222Itemized Rating Scale 222Likert Scale 223Fixed or Constant Sum Scale 223Stapel Scale 224Graphic Rating Scale 224Consensus Scale 225Other Scales 225Ranking Scales 225Paired Comparison 225Forced Choice 226Comparative Scale 226International Dimensions of Scaling 226Goodness of Measures 226Validity 227Content Validity 227Criterion- Related Validity 228Construct Validity 228Reliability 230Stability of Measures 230Internal Consistency of Measures 230Reflective Versus Formative Measurement Scales 231What is a Reflective Scale? 231What is a Formative Scale and Why Do the Items of a Formative Scale Not Necessarily Hang Together? 231Summary 232Discussion Questions 233Appendix: Examples of Some Measures 234Measures From Behavioural Finance Research 234Information Overload 234Orientation Toward Finance: Interest in Financial Information 235Measures From Management Accounting Research 235Measures From Management Research 235Organizational Resilience 235Job Involvement 236Career Salience 236Measures From Marketing Research 237Complaint Success Likelihood 237SERVQUAL: A Multidimensional Scale to Capture Customer Perceptions and Expectations of Service Quality 237Perceived Authenticity of a Social Media Influencer 23814 Sampling 239Introduction 239Population Element Sample Sampling Unit and Subject 240Population 240Element 240Sample 241Sampling Unit Unit of Observation and Unit of Analysis 241Subject 242Sample Data and Popula tion Values 242Parameters 242Representativeness of Samples 242Normality of Distributions 243The Sampling Process 244Defining the Population 244Determining the Sample Frame 244Determining the Sampling Design 244Determining the Sample Size 245Executing the Sampling Process 245Probability Sampling 246Unrestricted or Simple Random Sampling 246Restricted or Complex Probability Sampling 247Systematic Sampling 247Stratified Random Sampling 247Cluster Sampling 249Double Sampling 250Review of Probability Sampling Designs 250Non- Probability Sampling 251Convenience Sampling 251Purposive Sampling 251Judgment Sampling 251Quota Sampling 252Review of Non- Probability Sampling Designs 252Intermezzo: Examples of When Certain Sampling Designs Would be Appropriate 254Simple Random Sampling 254Stratified Random Sampling 255Systematic Sampling 256Cluster Sampling 256Area Sampling 257Double Sampling 257Convenience Sampling 257Judgment Sampling: One Type of Purposive Sampling 258Quota Sampling: A Second Type of Purposive Sampling 258Issues of Precision V Confidence in Determining Sample Size 259Precision 259Confidence 260Sample Data Precision and Confidence in Estimation 260Trade- Off Between Confidence and Precision 261Sample Data and Hypoth esis Testing 262The Sample Size 264Determining the Sample Size 264Sample Size and Type II Errors 265Statistical and Practical Significance 266Rules of Thumb 266Efficiency in Sampling 267Sampling as Related to Qualitative Studies 267Managerial Implications 268Summary 268Discussion Questions 27015 Quantitative Data Analysis 272Introduction 272Choosing Your Data Analysis Software 274Consulting Your Codebook 274Coding the Responses 276Data Entry 278Editing Data 278Getting a Feel for the Data 281Frequencies 282Bar Charts and Pie Charts 283Measures of Central Tendency and Dispersion 283Measures of Central Tendency 283Measures of Dispersion 285Relationships Between Variables 288Relationship Between Two Nominal Variables: χ 2 Test 288Correlations 289Excelsior Enterprises: Descriptive Statistics Part 1 290Testing the Goodness of Measures 292Reliability 292Excelsior Enterprises: Checking the Reliability of the Multi- item Measures 292Validity 294Excelsior Enterprises: Descriptive Statistics Part 2 294Summary 297Discussion Questions 29716 Quantitative Data Analysis: Hypothesis Testing 300Introduction 300Type I Errors Type II Errors and Statistical Power 300Choosing the Appropriate Statistical Technique 302Testing a Hypothesis About a Single Mean 303Testing Hypotheses About Two Related Means 304Testing Hypotheses About Two Unrelated Means 308Testing Hypotheses About Several Means 309Regression Analysis 310Standardized Regression Coefficients 313Regression with Dummy Variables 313Multicollinearity 314Testing Moderation Using Regression Analysis: Interaction Effects 314Other Multivariate Tests and Analyses 317Discriminant Analysis 317Logistic Regression Analysis 318Conjoint Analysis 318Two- Way ANOVA 319Manova 319Canonical Correlation 320Excelsior Enterprises: Hypothesis Testing 321Overall Interpretation and Recommendations to the President 322Data Mining and Operations Research 323Some Software Packages Useful for Data Analysis 324Summary 325Discussion Questions 32517 Qualitative Data Analysis 328Introduction 328Important Approaches to Qualitative Data Analysis 328Inductive and Deductive Coding 329Coding in Grounded Theory 329Open Coding 330Axial Coding 330Selective Coding 331Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research 342Other Methods of Gathering and Analyzing Qualitative Data 344Content Analysis 344Narrative Analysis 344Discourse Analysis 345Software to Analyze Qualitative Data 345Big Data 345Summary 346Discussion Questions 34718 Conclusions 348Introduction 348Conclusions and Recommendations: Where Your Journey as a Researcher Ends 349Writing Down Your Conclusions 349Different Ways of Looking at Conclusions 350Characteristics of Conclusions 351Developing an Argument 353Different Types of Arguments 354One the Importance of Using the Correct Type of Argumentation 357Incorrect or Flawed Forms of Reasoning 357Managerial Implications 358Summary 358Discussion Questions 36019 The Research Report 362Introduction 362The Written Report 362The Purpose of the Written Report 363The Audience for the Written Report 363Characteristics of a Well- Written Report 363A Structured Approach to Writing 364Contents of an Applied Research Report 365The Title and the Title Page 365Preface 366The Authorization Letter 366The Executive Summary or Abstract 366Table of Contents 367List of Tables Figures and Other Materials 368The Introductory Section 368The Body of the Report 368The Final Part of the Report 369References 370Appendices 371On the Structure of Academic Research Papers 372Oral Presentation 372Deciding On the Content 373Visual Aids 373The Presenter 374The Presentation 374Handling Questions 374Summary 375Discussion Questions 375Appendix 1: Different Routes and Structures of a Master’s Thesis 376Preface 377Abstract or Management Summary 377Table of Contents 377Introduction 377Case Organization 377Definition Management Problem 377Definition Research Problem 377Scope 378Relevance 378Methods 378Reading Guide 378Theoretical Framework 378Methods 378Procedure 378Sample 379Operationalizations 379Analyses 379Validity and Reliability 379Results 379Conclusions and Recommendations 379Discussion 379Theoretical and Practical Implications 379Limitations 380Future Research 380Appendix 2: Checklist for Theses 381Appendix 3: Factors Affecting the Upward Mobility of Women in Public Accounting 383A Final Note to Students 387Statistical Tables 389Glossary 399Bibliography 409Index 417