Remote Sensing and GIS

Basudeb Bhatta, Course Coordinator of Computer Aided Design Centre, Jadavpur University, Kolkata.

• 1. Concept of Remote Sensing 1.1 Introduction1.2 Distance of Remote Sensing1.3 Definition of Remote Sensing1.4 Remote Sensing: Art and/or Science1.5 Data1.5.1 In Situ Data1.5.2 Remotely Sensed Data1.6 Remote Sensing Process1.7 Source of Energy1.7.1 Concept of Energy1.7.2 Electromagnetic Radiation1.7.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum1.8 Interaction with Atmosphere1.8.1 Absorption1.8.2 Scattering1.8.3 Refraction1.8.4 Reflection1.9 Interaction with Target1.9.1 Hemispherical Absorptance, Transmittance, and Reflectance1.9.2 Spectral Reflectance Curve1.10 Interaction with the Atmosphere Again1.11 Recording of Energy by Sensor1.11.1 Target and Path Radiance1.12 Transmission, Reception, and Processing1.13 Interpretation and Analysis1.13.1 Visual Image Interpretation1.13.2 Digital Image Processing1.14 Applications of Remote Sensing1.15 Advantages of Remote Sensing1.16 Limitations of Remote Sensing1.17 Ideal Remote Sensing System 2. Types of Remote Sensing and Sensor Characteristics 2.1 Introduction2.2 Types of Remote Sensing2.2.1 Classification Based on Platform2.2.2 Classification Based on Energy Source2.2.3 Classification Based on Imaging Media2.2.4 Classification Based on the Regions of Electromagnetic Spectrum2.2.5 Classification Based on Number of Bands2.3 Characteristics of Images2.4 Orbital Characteristics of Satellite2.4.1 Orbit of Remote Sensing Satellite2.5 Remote Sensing Satellites2.6 Concept of Swath2.7 Concept of Nadir2.8 Sensor Resolutions2.8.1 Spatial Resolution2.8.2 Spectral Resolution2.8.3 Radiometric Resolution2.8.4 Temporal Resolution2.9 Image Referencing System2.9.1 Path2.9.2 Row2.9.3 Orbital Calendar 3. History of Remote Sensing and Indian Space Program 3.1 Introduction3.2 The Early Age3.3 The Middle Age3.4 The Modern Age or Space Age3.5 Indian Space Program3.5.1 DOS and ISRO3.5.2 NRSC3.5.3 Indian Launch Programs 4. Photographic Imaging 4.1 Introduction4.2 Camera Systems4.2.1 Components of Aerial Metric Camera4.2.2 Photographic Parameters4.3 Types of Camera4.3.1 Metric Cameras4.3.2 Multiple-lens (or Multi- spectral or Multiple-band) Cameras4.3.3 Panoramic Cameras4.3.4 Strip Cameras4.3.5 Large Format Cameras4.4 Filter4.4.1 Absorption Filter4.4.2 Interference Filter4.4.3 Anti-vignetting Filter4.4.4 UV Filter and Skylight Filter4.4.5 Haze Filter4.4.6 Polarizing Filter4.5 Film4.5.1 Types of Film4.5.2 Film Size4.5.3 Film Resolution4.5.4 Processing of Black-and-White Film4.5.5 Processing of Colour Film4.5.6 Digitization of Film4.6 Geometry of Aerial Photography4.6.1 Scale of Photograph4.6.2 Vantage Point4.7 Ideal Time and Atmosphere for Aerial Remote Sensing 5. Digital Imaging 5.1 Introduction5.2 Digital Image5.3 Sensor5.3.1 Dispersing Element5.3.2 Filter5.3.3 Spectrometer and Spectroradiometer5.3.4 Detectors5.4 Imaging by Scanning Technique5.4.1 Across-track Scanning5.4.2 Along-track Scanning5.5 Hyper-spectral Imaging5.5.1 Airborne Visible Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS)5.5.2 Compact Airborne Spectrographic Imager-2 (CASI-2)5.5.3 Compact High Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (CHRIS)5.6 Imaging By Non-scanning Technique5.7 Thermal Remote Sensing5.7.1 Radiant versus Kinetic Temperature5.7.2 Blackbody Radiation5.7.3 Thermal Imaging5.7.4 Thermal Properties5.7.5 Thermal Image and Temperature Mapping5.7.6 Thermal Remote Sensing Sensors5.8 Other Sensors 6. Microwave Remote Sensing 6.1 Introduction6.2 Passive Microwave Remote Sensing6.2.1 Passive Microwave Imagers6.3 Active Microwave Remote Sensing6.4 Radar Imaging6.4.1 Frequency/Wavelength6.4.2 Polarization6.4.3 Viewing Geometry6.4.4 Spatial Resolution of Radar System6.4.5 Speckle6.4.6 Surface Geometry6.4.7 Surface Roughness6.4.8 Dielectric Properties6.5 Airborne Versus Space-Borne Radars6.6 Radar Systems6.6.1 RISAT - 17. Ground-truth Data and Global Positioning System 7.1 Introduction7.2 Requirements of Ground-Truth Data7.3 Instruments for Ground Truthing7.4 Parameters of Ground Truthing7.4.1 Atmospheric Conditions7.4.2 Surface Water7.4.3 Vegetation7.4.4 Soil, Bare Ground, and Rock7.4.5 Dark and Light Calibration Targets7.5 Factors of Spectral Measurement7.5.1 Sun Angles7.5.2 Cloud Condition7.5.3 Aerosol, Haze, and Water Vapour7.5.4 Topography7.5.5 Shadows7.6 Global Navigation Satellite System7.6.1 Satellite-based Navigation and Positioning Systems7.6.2 Functional Segments of GPS7.6.3 Working Principle of GPS7.6.4 GPS Signals7.6.5 Errors of GPS7.6.6 Positioning Methods7.6.7 Differential Global Positioning System7.6.8 GPS Receivers7.6.9 Applications of GNSS 8. Photogrammetry 8.1 Introduction8.2 Development of Photogrammetry8.3 Classification of Photogrammetry8.4 Photogrammetric Process8.5 Acquisition of Imagery and its Support Data8.5.1 Acquisition of Imagery Using Aerial Platform8.5.2 Acquisition of Imagery Using Satellite Platform8.5.3 Control Surveys8.5.4 Geometric Distortion in Imagery8.6 Orientation and Triangulation8.6.1 Coordinate Systems8.6.2 Orientation8.6.3 Block Triangulation8.6.4 Transformation8.7 Stereo Model Compilation8.8 Stereoscopic 3D Viewing8.8.1 Stereoscopic Viewing in Analog Photogrammetry8.9 Stereoscopic Measurement8.9.1 x-Parallax8.9.2 y-parallax8.10 DTM/DEM Generation8.11 Contour Map Generation8.12 Orthorectification8.13 3D Feature Extraction8.14 3D Scene Modelling8.15 Photogrammetry and LiDAR8.16 Radargrammetry and Radar Interferometry8.17 Limitations of Photogrammetry 9. Visual Image Interpretation 9.1 Introduction9.2 Information Extraction by Human and Computer9.3 Remote Sensing Data Products9.4 Border or Marginal Information9.5 Image Interpretation9.6 Elements of Visual Image Interpretation9.6.1 Location9.6.2 Size9.6.3 Shape9.6.4 Shadow9.6.5 Tone9.6.6 Colour9.6.7 Texture9.6.8 Pattern9.6.9 Height and Depth9.6.10 Site, Situation, and Association9.7 Interpretation Keys9.8 Generation of Thematic Maps9.9 Thermal Image Interpretation9.9.1 Diurnal Heating Effects9.9.2 Thermal Properties of Water and Land9.9.3 Interpretation of Multispectral Thermal Image9.10 Radar Image Interpretation9.10.1 Tone9.10.2 Colour9.10.3 Shape, Structure, and Size9.10.4 Speckle9.10.5 Antenna Pattern9.10.6 Texture 10. Digital Image Processing 10.1 Introduction10.2 Categorization of Image Processing10.3 Image Processing Systems10.4 Digital Image10.5 Media for Digital Data Recording, Storage, and Distribution10.6 Data Formats of Digital Image10.7 Header Information10.8 Display of Digital Image10.9 Pre-processing10.9.1 Radiometric Correction of Remotely Sensed Data10.9.2 Geometric Correction of Remotely Sensed Data10.9.3 Miscellaneous Pre-processing10.10 Image Enhancement10.10.1 Image Reduction10.10.2 Image Magnification10.10.3 Colour Compositing10.10.4 Transect Extraction10.10.5 Contrast Enhancement10.10.6 Filtering10.11 Image Transformation10.11.1 Image Arithmetic Operations10.11.2 Principal Component Transformation10.11.3 Tasselled Cap Transformation (KT Transformation)10.11.4 Colour Space Transformation10.11.5 Fourier Transformation10.11.6 Image Fusion10.12 Image Classification10.12.1 Information Class and Spectral Class10.12.2 Supervised Versus Unsupervised Classification10.12.3 Decision Rules for Supervised Classification10.12.4 Decision Rules for Unsupervised Classification10.12.5 Subpixel Classification10.12.6 Accuracy Assessment10.12.7 Post-classification Processing 11. Data Integration, Analysis, and Presentation 11.1 Introduction11.2 Multi-approach of Remote Sensing11.2.1 MultiSensor, Multiplatform, and MultiResolution Images11.2.2 Multi-Spectral Images11.2.3 MultiTemporal/MultiSeasonal Images11.2.4 Multistage, Multiplatform, MultiScale, and MultiResolution11.2.5 MultiSource Data11.3 Integration with Ground Truth and Other Ancillary Data11.4 Integration of Transformed Data11.5 Integration with GIS11.6 Process of Remote Sensing Data Analysis11.7 The Level of Detail11.8 Limitations of Remote Sensing Data Analysis11.9 Presentation 12. Applications of Remote Sensing 12.1 Introduction12.2 Land Cover and Land Use12.2.1 Land-use/Land-cover Change12.2.2 Land-cover Mapping12.3 Agriculture12.3.1 Crop Type Mapping12.3.2 Crop Monitoring and Crop Damage Assessment12.4 Forestry12.4.1 Clear-cut Mapping and Deforestation12.4.2 Species Identification and Typing12.4.3 Burn Mapping12.5 Geology12.5.1 Structural Mapping and Terrain Analysis12.5.2 Lineament Extraction12.5.3 Geologic Unit Mapping12.6 Geomorphology12.7 Urban Applications12.8 Hydrology12.8.1 Flood Delineation and Mapping12.8.2 Soil Moisture12.8.3 Groundwater Prospects and Recharge12.9 Mapping12.9.1 Planimetry12.9.2 Digital Elevation Models12.9.3 Topographic and BTM12.10 Oceans and Coastal Monitoring12.10.1 Ocean Features12.10.2 Ocean Colour and Phytoplankton Concentration12.10.3 Measurement of SST12.10.4 Oil Spill Detection12.10.5 Sea-Surface Height12.10.6 Sea-Surface Roughness12.10.7 Ship Routing12.10.8 Sea Ice12.11 Monitoring of Atmospheric ConstituentsPART II Geographic Information Systems and Geospatial Analysis13. Concept of Geographic Information Systems 13.1 Introduction13.2 Definitions of GIS13.3 Key Components of GIS13.4 GIS-An Integration of Spatial and Attribute Information13.5 GIS-Three Views of Information System13.6 GIS and Related Terms13.7 GIS-A Knowledge Hub13.7.1 Geography13.7.2 Cartography13.7.3 Remote Sensing13.7.4 Photogrammetry13.7.5 Surveying13.7.6 Geodesy13.7.7 Global Navigation Satellite Systems13.7.8 Statistics13.7.9 Operations Research13.7.10 Computer Science13.7.11 Mathematics13.7.12 Civil Engineering13.8 GIS-A Set of Interrelated Subsystems13.8.1 Data Processing Subsystem13.8.2 Data Analysis Subsystem13.8.3 Information Use Subsystem13.8.4 Management Subsystem13.8.5 Communication Subsystem13.9 GIS-An Information Infrastructure13.10 Origin of GIS 14. Functions and Advantages of GIS 14.1 Introduction14.2 Functions of GIS14.3 Application Areas of GIS14.4 Advantages of GIS14.4.1 Advantage over Traditional Map14.4.2 Advantage over Mapping Software14.4.3 Advantage over CAD14.4.4 Advantage over AM/FM14.4.5 Advantage over Conventional DBMS14.4.6 Advantage of Analysis, Modelling, Presentation, and Decision Making14.5 Functional Requirements of GIS14.5.1 Relating Information from Different Sources14.5.2 Data Capture14.5.3 Database Storage and Management14.5.4 Data Integration14.5.5 Projection and Registration14.5.6 Data Structures14.5.7 Spatial Analysis14.5.8 Data Modelling14.5.9 Presenting Results14.6 Limitations of GIS 15. Spatial Data Model 15.1 Introduction15.2 Spatial, Thematic, and Temporal Dimensions of Geographic Data15.3 Spatial Entity and Object15.4 Spatial Data Model15.4.1 Conceptual Data Model15.4.2 Logical Data Model15.4.3 Object-oriented Data Model15.5 Raster Data Model15.5.1 Field-based Raster Model15.5.2 Object-based Raster Model15.6 Vector Data Model15.6.1 Object-based Vector Model15.6.2 Field-based Vector Model15.7 Raster versus Vector15.8 Object-Oriented Data Model15.8.1 Classification of Objects15.9 File Formats of Spatial Data 16. Attribute Data Management and Metadata Concept 16.1 Introduction16.2 Concept of Database and DBMS16.2.1 Tables16.2.2 Queries16.2.3 Reports16.2.4 Forms16.3 Advantages of DBMS16.4 Functions of DBMS16.5 File and Data Access16.5.1 Simple List16.5.2 Ordered Sequential File16.5.3 Indexed File16.5.4 Databases16.6 Data Models16.7 Database Models16.7.1 Object-based Model16.7.2 Record-based Model16.7.3 Physical Model16.8 Data Models in GIS16.9 Concept of SQL16.10 Concept of Metadata16.10.1 Role of Metadata in GIS16.10.2 Metadata Standards16.10.3 Metadata Formats16.10.4 Questions to be Answered to Create Metadata 17. Process of GIS 17.1 Introduction17.2 Data Capture17.3 Data Sources17.3.1 Conventional Analog Map Sources17.3.2 Reports and Publications17.3.3 Aerial Remote Sensing/Aerial Photography17.3.4 Satellite Remote Sensing17.3.5 Field Data Sources17.3.6 Existing Digital Map Sources17.4 Data Encoding Methods17.4.1 Encoding Raster Data17.4.2 Encoding Vector Data17.4.3 Verification and Quality Checking of Vector Data17.4.4 Vector Editing/Cleaning17.4.5 Encoding Attribute Data17.4.6 Digital File/Data Transfer17.5 Linking of Spatial and Attribute Data17.6 Organizing Data for Analysis 18. Geospatial Analysis 18.1 Introduction18.2 Geospatial Data Analysis18.3 Integration and Modelling of Spatial Data18.4 Geospatial Data Analysis Methods18.5 Database Query18.5.1 Vector Data Query18.5.2 Raster Data Query18.6 Geospatial Measurements18.6.1 Measurement of Density18.6.2 Measurement of Distance18.6.3 Measurement of Neighbourhood18.7 Overlay Operations18.7.1 Vector Overlay18.7.2 Raster Overlay18.8 Network Analysis18.8.1 Network Tracing18.8.2 Network Routing18.8.3 Network Allocation18.9 Surface Analysis18.9.1 Deriving Contours/Isolines18.9.2 Deriving Slope18.9.3 Deriving Aspect18.9.4 Hillshade Analysis18.9.5 Viewshed Analysis18.9.6 Watershed Analysis18.9.7 Surface Intersection18.10 Geostatistics18.11 Geovisualization18.11.1 Classification and Reclassification18.11.2 Map Comparison18.11.3 Chart18.11.4 Report18.11.5 Layout18.11.6 3D Visualization 19. Planning, Implementation, and Management of GIS 19.1 Introduction19.2 Planning of Project19.2.1 Considering the Strategic Purpose19.2.2 Plan for the Planning19.2.3 Determine Technology Requirements19.2.4 Describing Information Products19.2.5 Defining System Scope19.2.6 Designing Database19.2.7 Choosing Logical Data Model19.2.8 Determining System Requirements19.2.9 Analysing Benefits and Costs19.2.10 Implementation Plan19.3 Implementation of Project19.3.1 Procurement of Hardware and Software19.3.2 Organization of Project Team19.3.3 Training19.3.4 Execution of Project19.3.5 Quality Control and Quality Checking19.3.6 Project Reporting19.3.7 Project Meetings19.4 Management of Project19.4.1 Schedule/Time Management19.4.2 Cost Management19.4.3 Quality Management19.4.4 Human Resource Management19.4.5 Contract/Procurement Management19.4.6 Communications Management19.4.7 Scope Management19.4.8 Risk Management19.4.9 Project Integration Management19.5 Keys for Successful GIS19.6 Reasons for Unsuccessful GIS 20. Modern Trends of GIS 20.1 Introduction20.2 Local to Global Concept in GIS20.3 Increase in Dimensions in GIS20.4 Linear to Non-linear Techniques in GIS20.5 Development in Relation between Geometry and Algebra in GIS20.6 Development of Common Techniques in GIS20.7 Integration of GIS and Remote Sensing20.8 Integration of GIS and Multimedia20.8.1 Multimedia/Hypermedia GIS20.8.2 Web GIS20.9 3D GIS20.9.1 Virtual Reality in GIS20.10 Integration of 3D GIS and Web GIS20.11 4D GIS and Real-time GIS20.12 Mobile GIS20.12.1 Mobile mapping20.13 Collaborative GIS (CGIS) 21. Change Detection and Geosimulation21.1 Visual change detection21.2 Thresholding21.3 Image difference21.4 Image regression21.5 Image ratioing21.6 Vegetation index differencing21.7 Principal component differencing21.8 Multi-temporal image stock classification21.9 Post classification comparison21.10 Change vector analysis21.12 Cellular automata simulation21.13 Multi-agent simulation21.4 ANN learning in simulationAppendix A Concept of Map, Coordinate System, and Projection A.1 IntroductionA.2 What is Map?A.2.1 How Maps Convey Location and Extent?A.2.2 How Maps Convey Characteristics of Features?A.2.3 How Maps Convey Spatial Relationships?A.3 Orientation, Scale, Detail, Accuracy, and Resolution of MapsA.4 Classification of MapsA.4.1 Topographical Map by Survey of IndiaA.5 Coordinate SystemA.5.1 Cartesian Coordinate SystemA.5.2 Geographic Coordinate SystemA.5.3 Projected Coordinate SystemA.6 ProjectionA.6.1 Selection of Map ProjectionA.7 Classification of Map ProjectionA.7.1 Cylindrical ProjectionA.7.2 Conical ProjectionA.7.3 Azimuthal ProjectionA.7.4 Miscellaneous ProjectionA.8 Projection ParametersA.8.1 Linear ParametersA.8.2 Angular ParametersA.9 Common Map ProjectionsA.9.1 Polyconic ProjectionA.9.2 Lambert's Azimuthal Equal-area ProjectionA.9.3 UTM ProjectionA.9.4 Latitude/Longitude Geographic Coordinates Appendix B Concept on Mathematical Topics B.1 IntroductionB.2 Number SystemsB.2.1 Conversion of Any Number to Decimal Number SystemB.2.2 Conversion of Binary to HexadecimalB.2.3 Conversion of Hexadecimal to BinaryB.2.4 Conversion of Decimal to Any Other NumberB.2.5 Binary AdditionB.2.6 ComplementB.2.7 Representation of Negative NumbersB.2.8 Floating-Point Number RepresentationB.3 MatrixB.3.1 Matrix NotationB.3.2 Matrix TranspositionB.3.3 Summation of Matrix ElementsB.3.4 Matrix MultiplicationB.4 PolynomialsB.5 Digital Imagery CoordinateB.6 Dimensionality of Image DataB.7 Pixel WindowB.8 Image HistogramB.9 MeanB.10 MedianB.11 ModeB.12 VarianceB.13 Standard DeviationB.14 CovarianceB.15 Covariance MatrixB.16 Measurement VectorB.17 Mean VectorB.18 Image Space and Feature SpaceB.18.1 Feature Space ImageB.19 FactorialB.20 ThresholdB.21 Fuzzy LogicB.22 Artificial Neural NetworkB.23 Greek AlphabetsAcronyms and Glossary References Index