Religion Today

Ross Aden is retired associate professor in the philosophy department of Rock Valley College. Chris A. Kramer is faculty at Santa Barbara City College in the Department of Philosophy. He has taught across the philosophy and religion disciplines, infusing a critical thinking approach throughout his courses.

• Chapter 1: Welcome to the “Worlds” of ReligionOrientation: The “Worlds” of ReligionCase Study: Sightseeing and TourismExploration: Inquiry into the Challenge of LearningRetain or Revise Our Networks of Understanding?Investigation: Major Trends in the Development of Religious StudiesThe Naturalist ApproachThe Founders of the Sociology and PsychologyEvaluation of the Naturalist ApproachesThe Religionist ApproachThe Controversy Over the Naturalist and Religionist ApproachesThe Analytic Study of ReligionEvaluation of the Evolution of Religious StudiesThe Characteristics of Religious StudiesConcluding Proposal: Religious Studies and Critical ThinkingChapter 2: Defining ReligionOrientation: The Government’s Definition of ReligionThe Supreme Court and the Focus on BeliefExploration: The Challenge of Defining ReligionEtymology: The Original MeaningThe Reformation and the “Age of Discovery”“Natural Religion” and the EnlightenmentImmanuel Kant and EssentialismEvaluation of the Definition’s DevelopmentThe Etymology of the TermThe Age of Discovery’s View of ReligionThe Enlightenment’s View of ReligionThe Concept of Religious FreedomEssentialismInvestigation: Alternatives to EssentialismFunctionalism: From What It Is to What It DoesFamily Resemblance TheoryConcluding Proposal: Contextualizing the Definition of ReligionThe Challenge to Binary ThinkingReligion as a Heuristic DeviceChapter 3: The Hijab, a Study in Critical ThinkingOrientationForms of Muslim HijabDiscrimination against Wearing Hijab in AmericaProhibition in France and ElsewhereCompulsion in Iran and AfghanistanProtests: Some for and Some Against Wearing HijabExploration: The Research Question and Frames of ReferenceInvestigation: Frames for the Interpretation of Wearing HijabColonialism (Orientalism)FeminismIslamismConclusionsEvaluation: Analysis of the Reasons for Wearing HijabThe Key of Personal AgencyConcluding Proposal: The Resolution of the Seeming ContradictionThe Necessary Tools for AnalysisChapter 4: Religious Experience and SpiritualityOrientation: The Origin and Definition of “Spiritual but Not Religious”The Definition of “Spirituality”Is SBNR a Rationalization or a New Form of Religiosity?Exploration: The Pioneers of the Study of Religious ExperienceWilliam James: Healthy-Mindedness or the “Sick Soul”Rudolf Otto: Non-Rational Experience and True RealityMircea Eliade: The Nostalgia for the SacredInvestigation: The Classical ApproachesCommon Characteristics of Religious ExperienceCriticisms of the Sui Generis CharacteristicsTheories that Revise the Classical ApproachesConcluding Proposal: SBNR and the Future of ReligionA New Trend of Religiosity or an Excuse for Non-Participation?Evaluation: A Case Study in AttributionThe Theistic Storehouse of AttributionsTheist Organized Religion Is the Key to the FutureThe Store of Attributions Available to the SBNRChapter 5: Sacred Technology, SymbolOrientation: The Treatment of Human Remains and Objects from Ancient GravesThe ControversyExploration: Scientific Artifacts or Sacred Heritage?Special Treatment in MuseumsComplaints about the Limits on AccessA Difference in WorldviewsThe Research Question: Nature and Interpretation of SymbolsWhich Museum Artifact Is Sacred?Investigation: The Variety, Definition, and Characteristics of SymbolsWhat Symbols Represent: The Zoroastrian Sacred Cord Types of Religious SymbolsWhat Symbols Represent and What They MeanEvaluation: The Relationship of Symbols to What They SymbolizeReplaceable or IrreplaceablePossessing Impermanent PowerUseful Up to a PointSymbols Must Be DiscardedConcluding Proposal: A Symbolic Approach to Sacred ObjectsCritique of the Insider/Outsider DistinctionThe Role of Religious Studies in Interpreting Religious SymbolsChapter 6: Sacred Technology, MythOrientation: The Gift of the Sacred Pipe: Oglala Sioux Native AmericaThe Research Question: Developing a Suitable Understanding of MythExploration: The Rationalist Study of MythEvaluation of the Rationalist Interpretation of MythsThe Romantic Interpretation of MythThe Traditional versus the Modern Mind: CassirerTwo Tiers of RealityThe Psychological Approach to MythMyths and Dreams: Carl JungThe Heroic Journey: Joseph CampbellInvestigation: Presuppositions of the Romantic ApproachTwo Forms of Consciousness: CassirerMyth vs. Science: EliadeAccess to Myth Through PsychologyThe Journey into the PsycheMyth as IdeologyEvaluation of the Idea of Myth as IdeologyConcluding Proposal: Understanding the Role of Myths in LifeThe Goal of Finding an Acceptable Way of Interpreting MythsChapter 7: Sacred Technology, RitualOrientation: The Case of the Hopi KachinasThe Definition and Characteristics of RitualExploration: The Nature of RitualTypes of RitualsInvestigation: The Interpretation of RitualThe Relationship of Myth to RitualRitual as Expressive: HarrisonThe Ritual System as Logical: Evans-PritchardRitual as Sacred Place: Jonathan Z SmithEvaluation of the Theories of Interpreting RitualThe Emotional Character of Ritual: HarrisonThe Logic of RitualRitual and Sacred Space: Johnathan Z SmithWestern Categories of InterpretationConcluding Proposal: Interpreting Symbols, Myths, and Rituals in ContextThe Social Context of Sacred ObjectsThe General and the ParticularMeaning in the Social ContextThe Ritual ContextPrinciples of Interpreting Symbols and Myths in Their Ritual and Social ContextsLessons LearnedChapter 8: The Justification of BeliefOrientation: Evidence and BeliefExploration: The Question of the Justification of BeliefThe Definition of BeliefInvestigation: Approaches to the Justification of Religious BeliefFideism: Belief in (Sincere) BeliefAppeal to Revelation from Without: Hinduism, Amana Colonies, IslamAppeal to Enlightenment from Within: Zen BuddhismAppeal to AuthorityAppeal to Religious Experience According to John HickEvaluation of Approaches to the Justification of BeliefAppeals to Revelation/Enlightenment and AuthorityEvaluation of the Appeal to ExperienceEvaluation of the Evidentialist ApproachConcluding Proposal for Study: The Authority of TraditionScripture, a Combination of Types of AuthorityThe Origin and Development of Selected ScripturesBelief Justified by Its PracticeChapter 9: Religious Beliefs and the Questions They AnswerOrientation: The Question for StudyExploration: A Method of Comprehending Religious BeliefsAn Example of the Method: The Origin and Order of the UniverseInvestigation: Freedom and DestinyEastern Views of Freedom as LiberationThe Focus of Western Views: Freedom as the Ability to Make ChoicesEvaluation of the Answers to the Question of Freedom and DestinyInvestigation: SufferingSuffering as the Universal Condition of Human LifeSuffering as the Experience of Mental/Emotional DistressThe Problem of TheodicyAnswers to the Question of SufferingEvaluation of the Theories of SufferingEvaluation of the Method of Question and Answer in GeneralFrom Studying Beliefs to Focusing on BelieversConcluding Proposal: Beliefs are More Than AssertionsStaking One’s Life on BeliefUnderstanding Beliefs from the Viewpoint of the BelieverRefocus of Study from Bodies of Beliefs to Meaning SystemsChapter 10: Religion in the Digital AgeOrientation: Digital ReligionTraits of Digital ReligionTypes of New Religious MovementsExploration: The Assumption that Religions are UnchangingThe Challenge of Digital Religion to Conventional AssumptionsInvestigation: The Dynamics of Change in Religions and their BeliefsChanges in Practice and Corresponding Changes in Beliefs NRMs are Models of the Change of BeliefsCharacteristics of New Religious MovementsCharismatic Leaders as Agents for Change in ReligionEvaluation: What Makes the Work of Charismatic Leaders Lasting?Concluding Proposal: How Digital Religion Stimulates Change in ReligionThe Key to the Charismatic Leadership of Digital ReligionThe Survival of New Religious Movements and Digital Forms of ReligionThe Wildcard of Artificial IntelligenceThe Potential Impact of Artificial Intelligence on ReligionWill Robots Develop New Religious Movements?Conclusion: What Will Last?Chapter 11: Inside the Religious BrainOrientation: A New Horizon for the Study of Religious ExperienceThe Development of the Neuroscience of Religion: Brain ScansThe PioneersThe Expanding Field of the Brain Imagery of Religious PracticeResults of the Brain Scans of Religious PracticesProtests and Prospects: The Response to the FindingsExploration: The Challenge of NeuroscienceThe Findings of NeuroscienceThe Question Focus: How to Develop a Neuroscientific Theory of Religious ExperienceInvestigation: A Reconsideration of Past Assumptions of Religious ExperienceConfirmation of the Revisions to Past Assumptions: Danish StudyConcluding Proposal: Principles for a Theory of Religious ExperienceThe Plasticity of the BrainThe Emergent Character of Religious ExperienceThe Relationship between the Brain and MindThe Interaction of Brain, Mind, and CultureThe Emergence of Religious Experience: Bottom Up and Top DownEvaluation of the Proposed TheoryCritical Realism and Possible Realities Beyond Mental ProcessesChapter 12: Religion and ViolenceOrientation: The Perplexing Relationship of Religion and ViolenceTerrorismDomestic TerrorismBut Is Terrorism “Religious”?Exploration: Probing the Relationship Between Religion and ViolenceThree Levels of ViolenceThe Categories of Religious Association with Violence: LincolnThe Question for Study: How to Explain the Association of Religion and ViolenceInvestigation: Survey of Approaches that Explain Religious ViolenceReligions are Violent by NatureThe Argument from HistoryAbsolutism, the Root Cause of Violence: DawkinsWhy Religious Moderates are Still to BlameWhy Is Religion So Widespread When It Is So Harmful?The Role of Religion in Justifying State Violence: ArmstrongReligion Is Intrinsically Violent Because It Promotes Group IdentityGroup Identity Promotes Difference Leading to Conflict: Wellman and TokunoReligion Makes Violence LegitimateOnly Some Religions are ViolentThe Combination of Religion and Nationalism: Three Types Cosmic War (Apocalyptic) Ideas Enflame Religious Nationalism: JurgensmeyerReligious Exclusivism Breeds Intolerance and Conflict: EckOnly False Religions are ViolentChapter 13: Evaluating the Theories of Religious ViolenceOrientation: Critical Thinking about TheoriesEvaluation: Analysis of the Theories Reviewed in the Last ChapterAnalysis of the Theories of the New AtheistsAnalysis of the Theory that Group Identity Makes Religion ViolentAnalysis of the Theory of Cosmic Violence (Apocalypticism)Analysis of the Claim that Religious Types Make the DifferenceAnalysis of the Theory of the Pluralism ProjectAnalysis of the Theories of False Religion and EssentialismConcluding Proposal: A Multiple Conditions ApproachBuilding the Proposal: Types and ConditionsLeadership, the Key to War and PeaceConditions for ViolenceEvaluating the Concluding Proposal: Empirical and Practical TestsMultiple Conditions that Correlate with Violence: IsaacsFactors Supporting the Militant Leadership TheoryA “Take Away” from our Discussion: The Crucial Role of Religious StudiesChapter 14: Religion and JusticeOrientation: The Cry for JusticeExploration: Justice as DharmaInvestigation: Hindu Justice in a Well-Ordered SocietyExploration: Karma and ReincarnationInvestigation: Justice as KarmaKarmic Parallels in Christianity A Question for Reflection: Competing Conceptions of KarmaInvestigation: Retributive KarmaRetributive Karma as Blaming the VictimInvestigation: What if Everything Happens for a Reason? And the Reason is Always Just?Investigation: Can there be Justice if there are No “Individuals”?Investigation: Justice as Non-Violence from a Jain and Buddhist InterpretationEverything is InterconnectedInvestigation: Justice as Community (Including Nature) with Indigenous Interpretations of JusticeHarmony over HierarchyCollision between Indigenous and Western Conceptions of JusticeConcluding Proposal: Application to Current Issues and Evaluation in the Next ChapterChapter 15: Religion, Justice, and Contemporary Moral IssuesOrientation: Justice and Identity (and Identity Politics)Identity Politics and Affirmative ActionIdentity Politics and “Black Lives Matter”Backlash to Identity PoliticsThe Original Identity Politics: Religion and American SlaveryInvestigation: Stereotypes, Implicit Bias, and OppressionEvaluation: Stereotypes are Necessary (and Sometimes Accurate!)Evaluation: Stereotyping is Neither Necessary Nor AccurateOrientation: Justice and the Role of Women in SocietyWomen and Men Must Play their Respective Roles in SocietySocial Roles of Men and Women are Neither Natural nor Divinely CreatedInvestigation: Justice and AbortionRights of the Unborn: The Fetus is a Person with Full Human RightsRights of the Unborn: The Fetus is a Person but Abortion is Still PermissibleThe Fetus is Not (Yet) a Person: Potential and Actual RightsInvestigation: Indigenous Views on Personhood and RightsRights for Groups, Individuals, or Both?Investigation: Religious Conceptions of Justice in Secular SocietiesThe Traditional View: If Secular and Religious Conceptions of Justice Conflict, Stick with the ReligiousEvaluation of the Traditional ViewThe Standard View: If Secular and Religious Conceptions of Justice Conflict, Stick with the SecularEvaluation of the Standard ViewResponse to Investigations: Expand Our Conception of Reasoning and ArgumentConcluding Proposal: Argument as Persuasion, But also Collaboration, and Other Things as WellConclusionAppendix: The Methods of this BookBibliographyIndexAbout the Authors

For the second edition of Religion Today the authors have reorganized, condensed, and updated the material from the first edition, making this edition even more accessible and suitable for classroom use. It offers a systematic and engaging approach to interpretation and analysis of case studies (many headlining today’s news cycles), guiding readers to think critically, become adept at understanding and applying a wide variety of methods in the academic study of religion, and develop informed responses to public debates around contemporary social and cultural events. As someone who has taught theories and methods in the study of religion at both undergraduate and graduate levels, I highly recommend Religion Today.