Quantum Optics Devices on a Chip

Inamuddin, PhD, is an assistant professor at the Department of Applied Chemistry, Zakir Husain College of Engineering and Technology, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has extensive research experience in multidisciplinary fields of analytical chemistry, materials chemistry, electrochemistry, renewable energy, and environmental science. He has worked on different research projects funded by various government agencies and universities and is the recipient of awards, including the Department of Science and Technology, India, Fast-Track Young Scientist Award and Young Researcher of the Year Award 2020 from Aligarh Muslim University. He has published about 210 research articles in various international scientific journals, many book chapters, and dozens of edited books, many with Wiley-Scrivener. Tariq Altalhi, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia. He received his doctorate degree from University of Adelaide, Australia in the year 2014 with Dean’s Commendation for Doctoral Thesis Excellence. He has worked as head of the Chemistry Department at Taif university and Vice Dean of Science College. In 2015, one of his works was nominated for Green Tech awards from Germany, Europe’s largest environmental Naif Ahmed Alshehri, PhD, is an assistant professor of Nanotechnology at the Department of Physics, Faculty of Sciences at Al-Baha University. He is currently the vice-dean of postgraduate studies, research, innovation and quality. Prior to this position, he was the head of the Physics Department. His research interests include fabrication, characterization, and applications of nanomaterials and thin films. Jorddy Neves Cruz is a researcher at the Federal University of Pará and the Emilio Goeldi Museum. He has experience in multidisciplinary research in the areas of medicinal chemistry, drug design, extraction of bioactive compounds, extraction of essential oils, food chemistry and biological testing. He has published several research articles in scientific journals and is an associate editor of the Journal of Medicine.

• Preface xvii1 Quantum-Limited Microwave Amplifiers 1Dnyandeo Pawar, Bhaskara Rao, Ajay Kumar, Rajesh Kanawade and Arul Kashmir Arulraj1.1 Introduction 11.2 Why Microwave Amplifiers? 21.3 Quantum-Limited Amplifiers 31.4 Types of Microwave-Based Amplifiers 41.4.1 Conventional Electronic Amplifiers or High-Electron Mobility Transistor (HEMT) Amplifiers 51.4.2 Superconducting-Based Amplifiers 61.4.2.1 Josephson Junction 61.4.2.2 Concept of Parametric Amplifier 81.4.3 Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation (MASER) 81.5 Discussion on Quantum-Limited Microwave Amplifiers 91.6 Conclusion and Outlook 16References 182 Introduction to Quantum Optics 25Jamie Vovrosh2.1 How Is Quantum Optics Defined? 252.2 A Very Brief History of Quantum Optics 262.3 Modern-Day Quantum Optics 31References 323 Carbon Nanotubes with Quantum Defects 35Drisya G. Chandran, Loganathan Muruganandam and Rima Biswas3.1 Introduction 353.2 Various Types of Defects in Carbon Nanotube 383.2.1 Capped Carbon Nanotube (Hemispherical Caps) 383.2.2 Intramolecular Nano-Junction (Bent Carbon Nanotube) 393.2.3 Irradiated Carbon Nanotube 413.2.4 Layered Carbon Nanotube 423.2.5 Coalescence of Carbon Nanotubes 443.2.6 Welding Carbon Nanotubes 453.2.7 Doping Carbon Nanotubes 453.2.8 sp 3 Quantum Defect (Organic Color-Center) 463.3 Conclusions 50References 504 Quantum Dots to Medical Devices 55Mohammad Harun-Ur-Rashid, Israt Jahan and Abu Bin Imran4.1 Introduction 564.2 Synthesis and Characterization of QDs 574.2.1 Chemical Synthesis Methods 574.2.1.1 Colloidal Synthesis 574.2.1.2 Organometallic Synthesis 584.2.1.3 Sol–Gel Method 604.2.1.4 Microwave-Assisted Synthesis 614.2.2 Physical Properties and Characterization Techniques 624.2.2.1 Size and Shape 624.2.2.2 Optical Properties 654.2.2.3 Surface Chemistry 654.2.2.4 Electrical Properties 654.2.2.5 Toxicity and Biocompatibility 654.2.3 Surface Modification for Biocompatibility 654.2.3.1 Need for Surface Modification 664.2.3.2 Organic Coating Strategies 664.2.3.3 Inorganic Coating Techniques 664.2.3.4 Ligand Exchange Processes 674.2.3.5 Biocompatibility Testing 684.3 Quantum Dots in Biomedical Imaging 694.3.1 Fluorescent Properties and Their Use in Imaging 694.3.1.1 Unique Fluorescent Properties 694.3.1.2 Advantages in Imaging 704.3.1.3 Techniques Employing Quantum Dot Fluorescence 714.3.1.4 Biocompatibility and Targeting 714.3.1.5 Clinical and Research Applications 734.3.2 In Vivo vs. In Vitro Imaging Applications 734.3.2.1 In Vitro Imaging Applications 744.3.2.2 In Vivo Imaging Applications 754.3.2.3 Comparative Considerations 764.3.3 Advantages Over Traditional Imaging Agents 764.3.3.1 Enhanced Fluorescent Properties 764.3.3.2 Improved Targeting and Specificity 774.3.3.3 Versatility and Broad Application Range 774.3.3.4 Long-Term Tracking Capabilities 774.4 QDs in Drug Delivery Systems 784.4.1 Mechanism of Drug Delivery 794.4.1.1 Targeting and Cellular Uptake 794.4.1.2 Drug Release 794.4.1.3 Endosomal Escape 794.4.1.4 Real-Time Tracking 794.4.2 Current Advancements in QD-Mediated Therapies 814.4.2.1 Targeted Drug Delivery 814.4.2.2 Photodynamic and Photothermal Therapies 834.4.2.3 Gene Therapy 844.4.2.4 Immunotherapy 854.4.2.5 Overcoming Multidrug Resistance (MDR) 864.5 QDs in Diagnostic Applications 884.5.1 Bioimaging 884.5.2 Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) 894.5.3 Diagnostic Assays 904.6 Ethical, Safety, and Regulatory Considerations 924.6.1 Ethical Considerations 924.6.2 Safety Concerns 944.6.3 Regulatory Considerations 954.6.4 Environmental Impact 964.6.5 Future Directions 974.7 Conclusion 98Acknowledgments 99References 995 The Quantum State of Light 111Kamal Singh, Virender, Gurjaspreet Singh, Armando J.L. Pombeiro and Brij Mohan5.1 Introduction 1115.2 Quantum States of Light 1125.2.1 Quantization of Optical Field 1125.3 Quantum Superposition 1145.4 Quantum Entanglement 1155.5 Coherent Light 1165.6 Photonic Integration 1175.7 Photon Combs 1195.8 Photonic-Chip-Based Frequency Combs 1205.9 Double Photon Combs 1215.10 Applications 1225.10.1 Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) 1225.11 Quantum Computing 1245.12 Quantum Metrology 1245.13 Quantum Imaging 1255.14 Challenge 1265.15 Conclusion and Outlooks 127Acknowledgments 127References 1286 Quantum Computing with Chip-Scale Devices 133P. Mallika, P. Ashok, N. Sathishkumar, Harishchander Anandaram, N.A. Natraj and Sarala Patchala6.1 Quantum Computing: An Introduction to the Field 1346.1.1 Overview of Quantum Computing 1346.1.2 Historical Development 1346.1.3 Topography of Quantum Technology 1356.1.4 Quantum Chip Scale Devices 1356.2 Fundamentals of Chip-Scale Quantum Devices 1366.2.1 Benefits of Chip-Scale Devices in the Field of Quantum Communication 1366.2.2 Principles of Quantum Superposition 1376.2.3 Quantum Entanglement in Chip-Scale Systems 1386.2.4 Quantum Bits (Qubits) and Chip Integration 1396.3 Chip-Scale Quantum Architectures 1406.3.1 Quantum Gates on a Chip 1406.3.2 Quantum Circuits 1416.3.3 Key Aspects Pertaining to Quantum Circuits 1426.3.4 Challenges and Advances in Chip-Scale Architectures 1436.4 Applications of Chip-Scale Quantum Computing 1456.4.1 Materials Science and Drug Discovery 1456.4.2 Financial Modeling and Risk Analysis 1456.4.3 Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning 1476.4.4 Cryptography and Cybersecurity 1486.4.5 Logistics and Optimization 1496.5 Chip-Scale Quantum Computing: Challenges and Future Directions 1506.5.1 Challenges and Opportunities 1516.5.2 Future Opportunities of Quantum Computing Chip-Scale Devices 1526.6 Conclusion 154References 1557 Quantum-Enhanced THz Spectroscopy: Bridging the Gap with On-Chip Devices 159Driss Soubane and Tsuneyuki Ozaki7.1 Introduction 1607.2 T-Radiations Generation and Detection 1637.2.1 Photo-Conductive Antenna 1677.2.2 Semiconducting Materials Built-In Field 1697.2.3 The Photo-Dember Effect 1707.2.4 Optical Rectification for THz Generation 1717.2.5 Electro-Optical Sampling 1727.2.6 Wide Band Generation and Sensing 1727.2.7 Quasi-Phase-Matching 1737.2.8 Quantum Cascade Laser THz Source 1747.3 Terahertz Spectroscopy and Imaging 1747.3.1 Terahertz Time-Domain Spectroscopy 1757.3.1.1 Principle 1767.3.2 Time-Resolved THz Spectroscopy 1777.3.3 THz Imaging 1797.3.3.1 T‐Ray Imaging 1797.3.3.2 Reflection Imaging with T‐Rays 1807.3.3.3 THz Near‐Field Imaging 1817.4 Recent Developments in THz Technology 1817.4.1 THz Spectroscopy 1817.4.2 THz-TDS 1827.4.3 Medical Applications 1827.4.4 THz Near-Field Imaging 1837.5 Future Outlooks in THz Technology 1847.6 Conclusion 186Acknowledgment 187References 1878 Plasmonics and Microfluidics for Developing Chip-Based Sensors 199Akila Chithravel, Tulika Srivastava, Subhojyoti Sinha, Sandeep Munjal, Satish Lakkakula, Shailendra K. Saxena and Anand M. Shrivastav8.1 Introduction 2008.2 Microfluidics for Sensor Technologies 2018.3 Plasmonic-Based Sensors 2048.3.1 Surface Plasmon Resonance for Chip-Based Sensing 2058.3.1.1 Prism-Based SPR Sensor 2068.3.1.2 Fiber Optic-Based SPR Sensor Chip 2108.3.1.3 Grating Coupled- SPR for Chip-Based Sensing 2128.3.1.4 Waveguide-Based SPR Sensing 2138.3.2 Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance (LSPR)-Based Sensor Chips 2158.3.3 Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering for Chip-Based Sensor 2178.4 Challenges and Future Scope 2198.5 Summary 221References 2219 Silicon Photonics in Quantum Computing 227M. Rizwan, A. Ayub, M.A. Waris, A. Manzoor, S. Ilyas and F. Waqas9.1 Introduction 2289.2 Overview of Quantum Computing 2299.2.1 Quantum Physics and Qu-Bits 2299.2.2 Quantum Gates 2309.3 Significance of Photonics in Quantum Computing 2309.3.1 Quantum-Light-Sources 2319.3.2 Tunable Quantum-Photonic-Components 2329.3.3 Single-Photon-Detectors (SPDs) 2329.3.4 Chip Wrapping and System Amalgamation 2329.4 Fundamentals of Silicon Photonics 2339.4.1 Quantum Computing Technologies 2349.4.2 Scalable Methods for Silicon Photonic Chips 2349.5 Single-Photon Sources 2369.6 Quantum Photon Detection 2389.7 Mode-Division Multiplexing (MDM) and Wavelength- Division Multiplexing (WDM) 2389.8 Cryogenic Practices 2399.9 Chip Interconnects 2409.10 Chip-Based Quantum Communication 2419.11 QKD in Silicon Photonics 2419.11.1 Entanglement-Based QKD 2449.11.1.1 Entanglement-Based Protocols 2459.11.1.2 Working on Entanglement-Based QKD 2459.11.2 Superposition-Based QKD 2469.11.3 CV-QKD (Continuous-Variable QKD) 2479.11.4 Coherent State QKD 2479.11.5 Multiplexing Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) 2489.11.6 Types of Multiplexing QKD 2489.11.6.1 FDM (Frequency-Division Multiplexing) 2489.11.6.2 TDM (Time-Division Multiplexing) 2499.11.6.3 PDM (Polarization-Division Multiplexing) 2499.11.6.4 OAMM (Orbital Angular Momentum Multiplexing) 2499.12 Application of Silicone Photonics in Quantum Computing 2509.13 Multiphoton and High-Dimensional Applications 2529.14 Quantum Error Correction 2559.15 Quantum State Teleportation 2579.16 Challenges and Outcomes 2619.17 Low Loss Component 2619.18 Photon Generation 2629.19 Deterministic Quantum Operation 2639.20 Frequency Conversion 2649.21 Conclusion 264References 26510 Rare-Earth Ions in Solid-State Devices 273M. Rizwan, K. Zaman, S. Ahmad, A. Ayub and M. Tanveer10.1 Introduction 27410.2 Basic Aspects of Rare Earth Ions in Solids 27510.3 Role of Rare Earth Ions in Quantum Optics 27610.4 Rare Earth Ion-Based Devices 27710.4.1 Quantum Computer 27810.5 Quantum Photonic Materials and Devices with Rare-Earth Elements 27910.6 Recent Advancements in Low-Dimensional Rare-Earth Doped Material 28010.7 Rare Earth Ions Insulator 28110.8 Spectral Hole Burning (SHB) and Spectral Recording and Processing 28310.8.1 Optical Communication and Processing 28310.9 Spectroscopy and the Description of Materials 28310.9.1 Overcoming Blazing Spectral Holes 28410.10 Utilizing a SHB “Dynamic Optical Filter” for Laser Line Narrowing 28410.11 Example of Ultrasonic-Optical Tissue Imaging 28510.11.1 Elements of Ultrasound Optical Tissue (USO) Imaging System 28710.12 Applications of Solid-State Optical Devices 288Conclusion 289References 29011 Chip-Scale Quantum Memories 295Uzma Hira and Muhammad Husnain11.1 Introduction 29611.1.1 Quantum Memories (QMs) 29711.1.2 Journey from Classical RAM to Quantum RAM 29711.1.3 Classical Memories (CMs) and Quantum Memories (QMs) 29811.2 Scalable Quantum Memories (QMs) 29911.2.1 Some Fruitful Properties of QMs on Chip 29911.2.2 Performance Criteria 30111.2.2.1 Fidelity 30211.2.2.2 Efficiency 30211.2.2.3 Storage Time 30211.2.2.4 Bandwidth 30211.2.2.5 Multimodality 30311.2.2.6 Wavelength 30311.2.2.7 Robustness and Scalability 30311.3 Challenges in the Development of Scalable QMs 30311.4 Experimental and Theoretical Approaches Towards QMs 30411.5 Platforms for Chip-Scale QMs 30611.5.1 Atomic Gases 30611.5.2 Single Atom 30711.5.3 Solid-State Candidate in the Progress of QMs on Chip 30711.5.3.1 Trapped Ions in Solids 30811.5.3.2 Material Stability and Coherence Time 30811.5.3.3 Quantum Error Correction 30811.5.3.4 Integration with Quantum Repeaters 30911.5.3.5 Compatibility with Quantum Communication Protocols 30911.6 Rare-Earth Ions Doped in Solids 30911.7 Nitrogen Vacancy (NV) 31011.8 Quantum Dots in the Development of QMs 31111.9 III-V Groups Materials-Based Platform 31211.10 Role Graphene in QM 31311.11 Hybrid Quantum Memories 31411.12 Chip-Based QMs in the Improvements of Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) 31511.12.1 Enhancing QKD Performance 31511.13 Role of Optics and Photonics in the Field of Chip-Scale QMs 31611.14 Recent Development in QMs 318References 31912 Integrated Light Sources 323Uzma Hira and Muhammad Nayab Ahmad12.1 Introduction 32412.2 Types of Integrated Light Sources 32512.2.1 Semiconductor Diode Lasers and LEDs 32512.2.2 White GaN LEDs 32612.2.3 Quantum Dots and Nanowire Emitters 32612.2.4 Path-Entangled Photon Sources on Nonlinear Chips 32712.2.5 Silicon Photonics Light Sources 32812.2.6 Heterogeneously Integrated III-V/Si Lasers 32912.2.7 Single Photon Sources in Integrated Photonics 33012.2.8 Tunable and Narrowband Light Sources 33112.2.9 Micro-Cavity and Photonic Crystal Resonator Sources 33212.2.10 Micro-Fabricated Solid-State Dye Laser 33412.2.11 Rare-Earth Doped Waveguides for Integrated Light Generation 33412.3 Integrated Light Sources for Quantum Information Processing 33512.3.1 Photonic Quantum Chips 33612.3.2 Photons as Good Quantum Hardware 33612.3.3 Photonic Technologies 33712.3.4 Protocols for Quantum Communication 33712.4 Integration Techniques for Light Sources on Chips 33712.4.1 Heterogeneous Integration 33712.4.1.1 Components in Integration 33812.4.1.2 Applications 33912.4.2 Monolithic Integration 33912.4.2.1 Components in Integration 33912.4.2.2 Applications 33912.4.3 On-Chip Waveguides 34012.4.3.1 Applications 34112.4.4 Hybrid Integration 34112.4.4.1 Applications 34212.4.5 Epitaxial Growth 34212.4.5.1 Methods of Epitaxial Growth 34312.4.5.2 Applications 34312.4.6 Nanowire or Quantum Dot Integration 34412.4.6.1 Applications 34412.5 Challenges and Future Perspectives 34512.5.1 Challenges 34512.5.2 Future Perspectives 34612.6 Conclusion 347References 34713 Integrated Optical Design Principles 351Sharbari Deb and Santanu MallikAbbreviations 35213.1 Introduction 35213.2 Brief History of Optical Design Evolution 35313.3 Role of Integrated Optical Design in Modern Technology 35413.4 Fundamentals of Integrated Optics 35513.4.1 Basic Concepts in Optical Physics Relevant to Integration 35513.4.2 Waveguides: Types, Properties, and How They Guide Light 35513.4.2.1 Types of Waveguides 35613.4.2.2 Characteristics of Waveguides 35613.4.2.3 Light Guidance Principles 35713.5 Design Principles of Integrated Optical Devices 35813.5.1 Beam Propagation Method for Integrated Optical Design 35813.5.2 Couplers, Splitters, and Combiners: Design and Function 35913.5.2.1 Optical Coupler 36013.5.2.2 Optical Splitter 36113.5.2.3 Optical Combiner 36113.5.3 Integrated Lasers and Amplifiers: Principles and Applications 36213.5.4 Modulators and Switches 36313.5.4.1 Optical Modulators 36313.5.4.2 Optical Switches: Mechanisms and Applications 36413.6 Advanced Integrated Optical Systems 36513.6.1 Photonic Crystals 36513.6.2 Quantum Optics and Integration 36513.6.3 Nonlinear Optical Devices 36613.6.4 Integration of Optical Sensors 36613.7 Fabrication Techniques for Integrated Optical Devices 36713.7.1 Lithography and Etching 36713.7.2 Wafer Bonding and Dielectric Deposition 36813.7.3 Challenges in Fabrication 36813.8 Testing and Characterization of Integrated Optical Systems 36913.8.1 Measurement Techniques 36913.8.2 Characterization of Waveguides, Resonators, and Active Devices 37013.8.3 Reliability and Performance Testing 37013.9 Conclusion 371References 372Index 379