Plastics and Environmental Sustainability

Anthony L. Andrady, PhD, is an Adjunct Professor of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering at the North Carolina State University. An accomplished Polymer Scientist, Dr. Andrady has published over a hundred original research papers and book chapters on Polymers.  He is a Fellow of both the Royal Society of Chemistry and the National College of Rubber Technology (London, England). Dr. Andrady edited Plastics and the Environment (Wiley, 2003) and authored Science and Technology of Polymer Nanofibers (Wiley, 2007).

• Preface xiiiAcknowledgments xviiList of Plastic Materials xix1 The Anthropocene 11.1 Energy Futures 61.1.1 Fossil Fuel Energy 81.1.1.1 Oil 81.1.1.2 Coal 91.1.1.3 Gas 101.1.1.4 Nuclear Energy 111.1.2 Renewable Energy 121.1.2.1 Wind Energy 121.1.2.2 Solar Energy 131.1.2.3 Solar Biomass Energy 131.2 Materials Demand in the Future 141.2.1 Materials of Construction 151.2.2 Metal Resources 161.2.3 Critical Materials 181.2.4 Plastic Materials 191.3 Environmental Pollution 221.3.1 Classifying Pollution Impacts 231.3.2 Climate Change and Global Warming 24References 272 A Sustainability Primer 312.1 The Precautionary Principle 332.1.1 Objectives in Sustainability 352.2 Microeconomics of Sustainability: The Business Enterprise 362.3 Models on Implementing Sustainability 382.4 Life Cycle Analysis 412.5 The Emerging Paradigm and the Plastics Industry 442.5.1 Examples from Plastics Industry 472.5.1.1 Using the Minimum Energy Needed to Manufacture Products 472.5.1.2 Using the Energy Mix with a Minimal Environmental Footprint 472.5.1.3 Recovering Waste Process Energy for Reuse 482.5.1.4 Using Only as Much Material as Is Needed to Ensure Functionality 482.5.1.5 Using More of Renewable and Recycled Raw Materials 482.5.1.6 Reusing and Recycling Postuse Products 492.5.1.7 Minimizing Externalities at Source: Green Chemistry 492.5.1.8 Avoiding Toxic Components and Potential Hazards Associated with Products and Processes 502.5.1.9 Converting the Pollutants into Resources 50References 513 An Introduction to Plastics 553.1 Polymer Molecules 563.1.1 Size of Polymer Molecules 573.2 Consequences of Long-Chain Molecular Architecture 593.2.1 Molecular Weight of Chain Molecules 593.2.2 Tacticity 613.2.3 Partially Crystalline Plastics 623.2.4 Chain Branching and Cross-Linking 633.2.5 Glass Transition Temperature 663.3 Synthesis of Polymers 673.3.1 Addition or Chain Growth Reaction 683.3.2 Condensation or Step Growth Reaction 693.3.3 Copolymers 723.4 Testing of Polymers 723.4.1 Tensile Properties 733.4.2 Thermal Properties: DSC (Differential Scanning Calorimetry) 743.4.3 Thermal Properties: TGA 763.5 Common Plastics 763.5.1 Polyethylenes 773.5.2 Polypropylenes 783.5.3 Polystyrene 783.5.4 Poly(vinyl chloride) 80References 814 Plastic Products 834.1 Plastics: The Miracle Material 844.2 Plastic Production, Use, and Disposal 884.2.1 From Resin to Products 904.2.1.1 Resin Manufacture 904.2.1.2 Compounding 904.2.1.3 Processing into Product 914.3 Processing Methods for Common Thermoplastics 914.3.1 Injection Molding 914.3.2 Extrusion 954.3.3 Blow Molding 954.4 The Environmental Footprint of Plastics 974.4.1 Energy Considerations in Resin Manufacture 984.4.2 Atmospheric Emissions from Plastics Industry 1014.5 Plastics Additives 1034.5.1 Fillers for Plastics 1064.5.2 Plasticizers in PVC 1064.6 Biopolymer or Bio-Derived Plastics 1074.6.1 Bio-Based Plastics and Sustainability 1094.6.2 Emerging Bio-Based Plastics 1114.6.2.1 Bio-PE 1124.6.2.2 Bio-PET 1124.6.2.3 PLA 1134.6.2.4 Poly(Hydroxyalkanoates) 1154.6.2.5 Bio-Based Thermosets: PU 116References 1165 Societal Benefits of Plastics 1215.1 Transportation Applications of Plastics 1225.1.1 Passenger Cars 1225.1.2 Air and Sea Transport 1245.2 Benefits from Plastic Packaging 1265.2.1 Waste Reduction 1295.2.2 Chemical and Microbial Protection 1305.3 Plastics in Agriculture 1315.4 Building Industry Applications 1325.4.1 Pipes, Conduit, and Cladding 1335.4.2 Extruded PVC Cladding and Window Frames 1345.4.3 Foam Insulation 1355.4.4 Wood–Plastic Composites 1375.5 Original Equipment Manufacture (OEM) 1385.6 Using Plastics Sustainably 139References 1406 Degradation of Plastics in the Environment 1456.1 Defining Degradability 1466.2 Chemistry of Light-Induced Degradation 1476.2.1 Light-Initiated Photo-Oxidation in PE and PP 1506.2.2 Embrittlement and Fragmentation 1526.2.3 Temperature and Humidity Effects on Degradation 1546.2.4 Wavelength-Dependent Photodamage 1556.2.5 Testing Plastics for Photodegradability 1576.3 Enhanced Photodegradable Polyolefins 1606.3.1 Effects of Photodegradation on Biodegradation 1626.4 Biodegradation of Polymers 1636.4.1 Terminology and Definitions 1656.4.2 Biodegradable Plastics 1686.4.3 Testing Readily Biodegradable Plastics 1706.5 Biodegradability of Common Polymers 1736.5.1 Additives that Enhance Degradation in Common Polymers 1756.5.2 Degradable Plastics and Sustainable Development 176References 1787 Endocrine Disruptor Chemicals 1857.1 Endocrine Disruptor Chemicals Used in Plastics Industry 1877.2 BPA {2,2-Bis(4-Hydroxyphenyl)Propane} 1877.2.1 Exposure to BPA 1907.2.2 Effects of Exposure to BPA 1927.2.3 Dose–Response Relationships of BPA 1947.2.4 Safe Levels of BPA 1947.2.5 Contrary Viewpoint on BPA 1967.2.6 Environmental Sustainability and BPA 1977.3 Phthalate Plasticizers 1987.3.1 Exposure to Phthalates 2017.3.2 Toxicity of Phthalates 2037.3.3 Environmental Sustainability and Phthalates 2037.4 Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) 2047.4.1 Toxicity of PBDEs 2077.4.2 Environmental Sustainability and PBDE 2087.5 Alkylphenols and Their Ethoxylates (APE) 2097.6 EDCs and PET Bottles 209References 2128 Plastics and Health Impacts 2278.1 Packaging versus the Contents 2288.1.1 Packaging Milk in HDPE 2308.1.2 Overpackaging 2328.2 Package–Food Interactions 2338.2.1 Oxygen and Water Permeability 2348.2.2 Additive Migration and Toxicity 2368.2.3 Residual Monomer in Packaging Resin 2408.2.4 Scalping of Flavor Components 2408.3 Styrene and Expanded Polystyrene Food Service Materials 2428.3.1 Exposure to Styrene from Packaging 2448.3.2 Leachate from PET Bottles 2448.4 Ranking Common Plastics 2458.4.1 PVC 248References 2499 Managing Plastic Waste 2559.1 Recovery of Waste 2589.1.1 Material Recycling 2619.1.2 Feedstock Recovery 2619.1.3 Energy Recovery 2619.2 Pyrolysis of Plastic Waste for Feedstock Recovery 2619.2.1 Direct Thermolysis 2619.2.2 Hydrogenation or hydrocracking 2649.2.3 Gasification 2659.2.3.1 Thermal Gasification 2659.2.3.2 Plasma Arc Gasification 2669.2.4 Feedstock Recycling 2679.2.5 Landfilling 2719.2.6 Plastics Waste Incineration 2729.2.7 Biological Recovery Technologies 2749.3 Sustainable Waste Management Choices 2759.4 Mechanical Recycling of Plastics 2789.4.1 Recycling: A Sustainable Choice 2819.5 Recycling Bottles: Beverage Bottles and Jugs 2829.5.1 Bottle-to-Bottle Recycling 2829.5.2 Open-Loop Recycling 2849.5.3 Recycling of HDPE 2859.6 Designing for Recyclability 285References 28610 Plastics in the Oceans 29510.1 Origins of Plastics in the Ocean 29710.2 Weathering of Plastics in the Ocean Environment 29910.2.1 Beach (Supralittoral) Zone 30010.2.2 Surface Water Zone 30110.2.3 Deep Water and Sediment Zones 30110.2.3.1 Comparison of the Weathering Rates in Different Zones 30110.3 Microplastic Debris 30410.3.1 Primary and Secondary Microplastics 30510.3.2 Persistent Organic Pollutant in Microplastics 30710.3.3 Ingestion of Microplastics by Marine Species 30910.4 Ocean Litter and Sustainability 310References 311Index 319

“Plastics and environmental sustainability is a fine book, packed with informative data and well worth reading . . . Overall, I enjoyed this book a great deal.”  (Chemistry in Australia, 1 December 2015)