Perovskite Solar Cells

Shahzada Ahmad is Professor at the Basque Center for Materials Applications & Nanostructures (BCMaterials). Prior to his current position, Dr. Ahmad has worked as program director at Abengoa Research. After his PhD in the field of materials chemistry he was an Alexander von Humboldt Fellow at the Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Mainz, Germany, and worked on surface and interface studies. Dr. Ahmad is a prolific author and has authored more than 100 publications in the fields of physical chemistry, nanotechnology and materials science with a research mission to develop advanced materials for energy application. Samrana Kazim is senior researcher at the Basque Center for Materials Applications & Nanostructures (BCMaterials). After her PhD, she moved to the Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Prague, Czech Republic, on a IUPAC/UNESCO fellowship. Before joining BCMaterials, she worked as senior scientist at Abengoa Research for four years. Her field of research interest includes perovskite solar cells, plasmonics, hybrid inorganic-organic nanocomposites. She has authored 40 research articles in peer-reviewed international journals, has co-authored two book chapters and is co-inventor of five patents. Michael Grätzel is Professor of Physical Chemistry at the Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Switzerland, and directs the Laboratory of Photonics and Interfaces. He pioneered research in the field of energy and electron transfer reactions in mesoscopic systems and their use in energy conversion systems. With an h factor of 218, Michael Grätzel is one of the three most highly cited chemists in the world. His recent awards include the RUSNANO Prize, an honorary doctorate of the Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Paris-Cachan, the Global Energy Prize, the Zewail Prize and Medal, and the Centenary Prize of the Royal Society of Chemistry (UK). He is a member of the Swiss Chemical Society and an elected member of the German Academy of Science (Leopoldina) as well as Honorary member of the Israeli Chemical Society, the Bulgarian Academy of Science and the Société Vaudoise de Sciences Naturelles.

• Foreword xv1 Chemical Processing of Mixed-Cation Hybrid Perovskites: Stabilizing Effects of Configurational Entropy 1Feray Ünlü, Eunhwan Jung, Senol Öz, Heechae Choi, Thomas Fischer, andSanjay Mathur1.1 Introduction 11.1.1 Stability Issues of Organic–Inorganic Hybrid Perovskites 21.2 Crystal Structure of Perovskites 41.2.1 Goldschmidt Tolerance Factor for 3D Structure 51.2.2 Octahedral Factor 51.2.3 Role of A-Site Cation 71.2.4 Theoretical Calculations: Molecular Dynamics of A-Site Cation 81.2.5 Entropy of Mixing: Configurational Effects in Mixed-Cation Perovskites 111.3 Multiple A-Site Cation Perovskites 121.3.1 FA+/MA+ Alloying for Higher Phase Stability and Photovoltaic Efficiency 121.3.2 Cesium Inclusion for Thermal Stability 131.3.3 Rb+ Small-Cation Influence on Perovskite Structure for Thermal Stability 151.3.4 Guanidinium Large-Cation Influence on Perovskite Structure for Stability 161.3.5 Triple- and Quadruple-Cation Hybrid Perovskites for Stability and Optimum Performance 171.3.6 Larger Organic Cations: Reducing Dimensionality for Improved Thermal Stability 201.4 Conclusion and Perspectives 22Acknowledgments 24References 242 Flash Infrared Annealing for Processing of Perovskite Solar Cells 33Sandy Sánchez and Anders Hagfeldt2.1 Introduction 332.2 Perovskite Crystal Nucleation and Growth from Solution 342.2.1 The Antisolvent Dripping Method 342.2.2 Thermodynamics of Nucleation and Crystal Growth 342.2.3 Kinetic Process for Rapid Thermal Growth 362.3 Rapid Thermal Annealing 372.3.1 The FIRA Method 372.3.2 FIRA and Antisolvent 392.3.3 Perovskite Film Crystallization for a Single IR Pulse 402.3.4 Perovskite Crystallization with Pulse Duration 422.3.5 Pulsed FIRA Method for Inorganic Perovskite Composition 452.3.6 Warmed-Pulsed FIRA Method 462.3.7 Crystallization Behavior of Mixed Perovskite Solutions 472.4 Structural Analysis of FIRA-Annealed Perovskite Films with Variable Pulse Time 502.4.1 Planar and Mesoporous Substrates 502.4.2 Crystal Structure Analysis 512.4.3 Structure of the Intermediate Phases 532.4.4 Internal Crystal Domain Structure 562.5 A Cost-Effective and Environmentally Friendly Method 572.5.1 Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) of the Perovskite Film Synthesis Methods 572.5.2 Relative Cost and Environmental Impact of the AS and FIRA Methods 582.6 Application for MAPI3 Perovskite Solar Cells 602.6.1 Single IR Pulse and MAPbI3 Perovskite Composition 602.6.2 Large-Area Devices 602.7 Planar Devices Architecture and Mixed Perovskite Composition 642.7.1 Thin Film Analysis 642.7.2 PV Performance and Electronic Characteristic of the Devices 642.8 Pulsed FIRA for Inorganic Perovskite Solar Cells 672.8.1 Thin Film Analysis 672.8.2 PV Performance 682.9 Rapid Manufacturing of PSCs with an Adapted Perovskite Chemical Composition 712.9.1 Rapid Annealed TiO2 Mesoscopic Film 712.9.2 FCG Perovskite Stabilized with TBAI 722.9.3 PV Performance of the Manufactured PSCs 732.10 Outlook and Technical Details 752.10.1 Optimization of FIRA Process for Tandem Solar Cells 752.10.2 Automatic Roll-to-Roll System for the FIRA Manufacture of Perovskite Solar Cells 772.10.3 Electronic Setup 782.10.4 LabView Interface 782.11 Experimental Methods 802.11.1 Manufacture of Perovskite Solar Cells 802.11.2 Perovskite Solution Preparation 802.11.3 Antisolvent Method 812.11.4 FIRA Method 812.11.5 HTM Deposition and Back Contact Evaporation 812.11.6 Device Characterization 822.11.7 Material Characterization 822.11.8 Temperature Measurement 83List of Abbreviations 83Acknowledgments 84References 843 Passivation of Hybrid/Inorganic Perovskite Solar Cells 91Muhammad Akmal Kamarudin and Shuzi Hayase3.1 Introduction 913.1.1 Types of Passivation 933.1.1.1 Bulk Passivation 933.1.1.2 Surface Passivation 933.1.2 Passivating Materials 953.1.2.1 Metal Halides 953.1.2.2 Organic Acids (—COOH, —SOOH, and —POOH) 963.1.2.3 Organosulfur Compound 983.1.2.4 Amines 983.1.2.5 Graphene 1003.1.2.6 Metal Oxides 1003.1.2.7 Organic Halides 1023.1.2.8 Quantum Dots 1043.1.2.9 Polymers 1043.1.2.10 Zwitterions 1073.2 Conclusion 107References 1084 Tuning Interfacial Effects in Hybrid Perovskite Solar Cells 113Rafael S. Sánchez, Lionel Hirsch, and Dario M. Bassani4.1 Strategies for Interfacial Deposition and Analysis 1134.1.1 Tailoring the PS Properties and Microstructural Interface Through Solvent Engineering 1144.1.2 Tailoring the PS Properties and Microstructural Interface Through Non-solvent Methods 1174.2 Defect Formation in PS Films and Interfaces 1184.2.1 Defect Formation in the PS Bulk and at the Surface During Film Crystallization 1194.2.2 Defect Formation and Dynamics of PSC Under Working Conditions 1224.3 Passivation Strategies of PS 1264.4 Measuring and Tuning the Work Function and Surface Potential in PSC 1304.5 Tuning the Wettability and Compatibility Between Layers 1384.6 Effect on Device Efficiency and Lifetime 1424.6.1 Moisture Effects on PS Films and PSC 1424.6.2 Photoinduced Degradation of PS Films and PSC 1464.6.3 Thermal Degradation of PS Films and PSC 1494.6.4 Other Sources of Degradation in PSC 1504.7 Conclusions and Prospects 153References 1545 All-inorganic Perovskite Solar Cells 175Yaowen Li and Yongfang Li5.1 Introduction 1755.2 Basic Knowledge of All-inorganic Pero-SCs 1765.2.1 Crystalline Structure 1765.2.2 Stability 1775.2.2.1 Thermal Stability 1775.2.2.2 Phase Stability 1775.2.2.3 Light Stability 1785.2.3 Working Principle 1785.3 Lead-Based Inorganic Pero-SCs 1795.3.1 CsPbI3 1795.3.1.1 Additive Engineering 1815.3.1.2 Organic Compound Treatment 1815.3.1.3 Crystal Size Reduction and Morphology Optimization 1835.3.1.4 Current Density Increase 1855.3.2 CsPbI2Br 1855.3.2.1 Fabrication Methods 1855.3.2.2 Ionic Incorporation 1895.3.2.3 Interface Engineering 1915.3.3 CsPbIBr2 1935.3.3.1 Crystal Growth 1945.3.3.2 Ionic Incorporation 1955.3.3.3 Interface Engineering 1965.3.4 CsPbBr3 1965.3.4.1 Fabrication Method 1975.3.4.2 Ionic Incorporation 1995.3.4.3 Interface Engineering 1995.4 Tin-Based Inorganic Pero-SCs 2005.4.1 CsSnI3 2005.4.1.1 Fabrication Methods 2015.4.1.2 Additive Engineering 2035.4.1.3 Substrate Control 2035.4.2 CsSnIxBr3−x 2045.5 Other Inorganic Pero-SCs 2045.5.1 Ge-Based Inorganic Pero-SCs 2055.5.2 Sb-Based Inorganic Pero-SCs 2055.5.3 Bi-Based Inorganic Pero-SCs 2065.5.3.1 A3B2I9 Structure 2065.5.3.2 Other Structures 2075.5.4 Double B site Cation Perovskite 2075.6 Conclusion 209References 2106 Tin Halide Perovskite Solar Cells 223Thomas Stergiopoulos6.1 Introduction 2236.2 Why Tin Halide Perovskites? 2236.2.1 Tin as the Sole Viable Alternative 2236.2.2 Favorable Optoelectronic Properties of Tin Perovskites 2246.2.2.1 Low Bandgap 2246.2.2.2 High Charge Carrier Mobility 2246.2.2.3 Similar Properties with Lead Perovskites 2256.3 Concerns About Tin-Based Perovskites 2256.3.1 Severe Non-radiative Recombination 2256.3.2 Poor Stability 2266.4 Control of Hole Doping 2276.4.1 Sn2+ Compensation/Necessity of Adding SnF2 2276.4.2 Additives to Improve SnF2 Dispersion 2276.4.3 Elimination of Sn4+ Impurities 2296.4.3.1 SnI2 Purification 2296.4.3.2 Reaction of Sn Powder with Sn4+ Residuals 2296.4.3.3 Addition of Reducing Agents 2306.5 Films Deposition 2316.5.1 Crystallization Tuning 2316.5.1.1 Solvent Engineering 2316.5.1.2 Additives to Slow Down Crystallization Kinetics 2326.5.2 Posttreatment Strategies/Surface Trap Passivation 2336.6 Contacts/Interface Engineering 2346.7 Ongoing Challenges 2356.7.1 Efficiency 2356.7.2 Stability 2386.7.3 Performance over the S–Q Limit/Toward Multijunction Solar Cells 2386.7.4 Sustainability 2416.8 Conclusion 241Acknowledgments 242References 2427 Low-Temperature and Facile Solution-Processed Two-Dimensional Materials as Electron Transport Layer for Highly Efficient Perovskite Solar Cells 247Shao Hui, Najib H. Ladi, Han Pan, Yan Shen, and Mingkui Wang7.1 Introduction 2477.2 Charge Transport in Perovskite Solar Cells 2497.3 Brief Development of Perovskite Solar Cells 2517.4 Functions and Requirements of Electron Transport Layer 2537.5 Features and Advantages of Two-Dimensional Electron Transport Materials 2567.6 Van der Waals Heterojunctions 2567.7 Quantum Confinement Effect in Two-Dimensional Electron Transport Materials and ItsApplication 2587.8 Other Physical Properties of Two-Dimensional Electron Transport Materials 2597.9 Synthesis of Various Two-Dimensional Materials 2607.10 Application of Two-Dimensional Material as an Electron Transport Layer in Perovskite Solar Cells 2627.11 Conclusion and Outlook 266List of Abbreviations 267References 2688 Metal Oxides in Stable and Flexible Halide Perovskite Solar Cells: Toward Self-Powered Internet of Things 273Carlos Pereyra, Haibing Xie, Amir N. Shandy, Vanessa Martínez, HenckPierre, Elia Santigosa, Daniel A. Acuña-Leal, Laia Capdevila, Quentin Billon,Löis Mergny, María Ramos-Payán, Mónica Gomez, Bindu Krishnan, MariaMuñoz, David M. Tanenbaum, Anders Hagfeldt, and Monica Lira-Cantu8.1 Introduction 2738.2 Metal Oxides in Normal (n–i–p), Inverted (p–i–n) and “Oxide-Sandwich” Halide Perovskite Solar Cells 2758.3 Mesoporous Metal Oxide Bilayers in Highly Stable Carbon-Based Perovskite Solar Cells 2778.4 Solution-Processable Metal Oxides for Flexible Halide Perovskite Solar Cells 2888.5 Characterization of PSC by Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) 2948.6 Conclusions 299Acknowledgments 299References 3009 Electron Transport Layers in Perovskite Solar Cells 311Fatemeh Jafari, Mehrad Ahmadpour, Um Kanta Aryal, Mariam Ahmad,Michela Prete, Naeimeh Torabi, Vida Turkovic, Horst-Günter Rubahn, AbbasBehjat, and Morten Madsen9.1 Introduction 3119.2 Requirements of Ideal Electron Transport Layers (ETL) 3129.3 Overview of Electron Transport Materials 3149.3.1 Metal Oxide Electron Transport Materials 3149.3.2 Organic Electron Transport Materials 3179.4 The Architectures of Perovskite Solar Cells 3219.4.1 Mesoscopic Perovskite Solar Cells 3219.4.2 Planar Perovskite Solar Cells 323Acknowledgments 324References 32410 Dopant-Free Hole-Transporting Materials for Perovskite Solar Cells 331Meenakshi Pegu, Shahzada Ahmad, and Samrana Kazim10.1 Introduction 33110.1.1 Device Structure of Perovskite Solar Cells 33210.1.2 Charge Transport in Perovskite Solar Cells and Role of HTM 33310.2 Hole-Transporting Material for Perovskite Solar Cells 33410.2.1 Characteristics of an HTM and Interaction with Perovskite 33410.2.2 Nature of HTM: Organometallic, Inorganic, and Organic (Small Molecules and Polymers) 33610.2.3 Doping of Hole-Transporting Materials in PSCs 33710.3 Dopant-Free Organic HTMs for Perovskite Solar Cells 34010.3.1 Dopant-Free Organic Polymer As HTM 34010.3.2 Dopant-Free Small Molecules as HTM 34010.3.2.1 Triarylamine-Based HTM 34010.3.2.2 Carbazole-Based HTMs 34810.3.2.3 Thiophene-Based HTMs 34910.3.2.4 Acene-Based HTMs 35010.3.2.5 Triazatruxene-Based HTMs 35010.3.2.6 Tetrathiafulvalene-Based HTM 35310.3.2.7 Organometallic Compounds and Other Molecules as HTM 35310.4 Conclusion and Outlook 356Acknowledgments 356List of Abbreviations 356References 35911 Impact of Monovalent Metal Halides on the Structural and Photophysical Properties of Halide Perovskite 369 Mojtaba Abdi-Jalebi and M. Ibrahim Dar11.1 Introduction 36911.2 Metal Halides 36911.3 Monovalent Metal Halides 37011.4 Impact of Monovalent Metal Halides on the Morphological, Structural and Optoelectronic Properties of Perovskites 37211.5 Impact of Monovalent Metal Halides on Photovoltaic Device Characterizations 378References 38412 Charge Carrier Dynamics in Perovskite Solar Cells 389Mohd T. Khan, Abdullah Almohammedi, Samrana Kazim, and Shahzada Ahmad12.1 Introduction 38912.2 Space Charge-Limited Conduction 39012.3 Immitance Spectroscopy 39512.3.1 Impedance Spectroscopy 39512.3.2 Capacitance Spectroscopy 40212.3.2.1 Capacitance vs. Frequency (C–f ) Measurements 40312.3.2.2 Capacitance vs. Voltage (C–V) Measurements and Mott–Schottky Analysis 40612.3.2.3 Thermal Admittance Spectroscopy 40912.4 Transient Spectroscopy 41312.4.1 Time-Resolved Microwave Conductivity Measurements 41312.4.2 Transient Absorption Spectroscopy 41712.4.3 Time-Resolved Photoluminescence 42012.5 Conclusion 423Acknowledgments 424References 42413 Printable Mesoscopic Perovskite Solar Cells 431Daiyu Li, Yaoguang Rong, Yue Hu, Anyi Mei, and Hongwei Han13.1 Introduction 43113.2 Device Structures and Working Principles 43213.3 Progress of Efficiency and Stability 43313.4 Scaling-up of Printable Mesoscopic Perovskite Solar Cells 43813.4.1 The Structure of Printable Mesoscopic PSC Modules 43813.4.2 Solution Deposition Methods of Printable Mesoscopic PSC Modules 44013.4.3 Encapsulation of Printable Mesoscopic PSCs 44213.4.4 The Recycling of Printable Mesoscopic PSCs 44213.4.5 Mass-Production of Printable Mesoscopic PSC Modules 44413.4.6 Standardizing the Evaluation of PSC Modules 44513.4.7 Standardizing the Aging Measurements of PSC Modules 44713.5 Conclusions 449References 44914 Upscaling of Perovskite Photovoltaics 453Dongju Jang, Fu Yang, Lirong Dong, Christoph J. Brabec, and Hans-Joachim Egelhaaf14.1 Introduction 45314.2 Techniques for Upscaling 45714.3 State-of-the-art of Large-Area High-Quality Perovskite Devices 46714.4 Strategies of Upscaling of Perovskite Devices 47114.4.1 Strategies for Up-Scaling Perovskite Layers 47314.4.1.1 Physical Methods 47314.4.1.2 Chemical Methods 47614.4.1.3 Post-Growth Treatment 47714.4.2 Scalable Charge Extraction Layers 47814.4.3 Scalable Electrodes 47914.4.3.1 Bottom Electrode 47914.4.3.2 Top Electrode 48114.5 Module Layout 48114.6 Lifetime Aspects 48414.7 Summary and Outlook 486References 48915 Scalable Architectures and Fabrication Processes of Perovskite Solar Cell Technology 497Ghufran S. Hashmi15.1 Background 49715.1.1 Configurations and Device Architectures of Perovskite Solar Cells 49815.1.2 HTM-Free Device Configurations for Perovskite Solar Cells 49915.1.3 Perovskites-Based Tandem Solar Cells 50015.2 Scalable Device Designs of Perovskite Solar Cells 50115.2.1 Scalable n–i–p Configuration-Based Perovskite Solar Modules 50115.2.2 Scalable p–i–n Configuration-Based Perovskite Solar Modules 50415.2.3 Scalable n–i–p and p–i–n Configuration-Based Flexible Perovskite Solar Modules 50415.2.4 HTM-Free Perovskite Solar Modules 50815.3 Critical Overview on Scalable Materials Deposition Methods 50915.4 Nutshell of Long-Term Device Stability of Perovskite Solar Cells and Modules 51315.5 Conclusive Summary and Futuristic Outlook 514References 51516 Multi-Junction Perovskite Solar Cells 521Suhas Mahesh and Bernard Wenger16.1 Introduction 52116.1.1 How Efficient Can Solar Cells Be? 52316.1.2 How Do Multi-Junction Solar Cells Work? 52516.1.3 Multi-Junction: Two-Terminal, Three-Terminal, and Four-Terminal Multi-Junctions 52516.1.4 Why Perovskites for Multi-Junctions? 52816.2 Perovskite-Silicon Tandems 52916.2.1 Bandgap Engineering 53016.2.2 Parasitic Absorption 53216.2.3 Optical Management 53516.3 Perovskite–Perovskite Tandems 53616.4 Characterizing Tandems 53816.5 Commercialization 53916.5.1 Reliability 54016.5.2 Scalability 54016.5.3 Cost 54116.6 Outlook 542References 543Index 549