Periglacial Environment

Häftad, Engelska, 2017

Av Hugh M. French, Canada) French, Hugh M. (University of Ottawa

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The Periglacial Environment, Fourth Edition, is an authoritative overview of the world’s cold, non-glacial environments. First published in 1976 and subsequently revised in 1996 and 2007, the text has been the international standard for nearly 40 years.The Fourth Edition continues to be a personal interpretation of the frost-induced conditions, geomorphic processes and landforms that characterize periglacial environments. Part One discusses the periglacial concept and describes the typical climates and ecosystems that are involved. Part Two describes the geocryology (permafrost science) associated with frozen ground. Part Three outlines the weathering and geomorphic processes associated with cold-climate conditions. Part Four provides insight into the periglacial environments of the Quaternary, especially the Late Pleistocene. Part Five describes some of the problems associated with human occupancy in regions that experience frozen ground and cold-climate conditions. Extensively revised and updatedWritten by an expert with over 50 years of field researchDraws upon the author’s personal experience from Northern Canada, Alaska, Siberia, Tibet, Antarctica, Svalbard, Scandinavia, southern South America, Western Europe and eastern North AmericaThis book is an invaluable reference for advanced undergraduates in geography, geology, earth sciences and environmental sciences programs, and to resource managers and geotechnical engineers interested in cold regions.

Produktinformation

Utgivningsdatum2017-12-22
Mått178 x 252 x 23 mm
Vikt1 089 g
FormatHäftad
SpråkEngelska
Antal sidor544
Upplaga4
FörlagJohn Wiley and Sons Ltd
ISBN9781119132783

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Geovetenskap inom Naturvetenskap och teknik

Preface to Fourth Edition xvPreface to Third Edition xviiPreface to Second Edition xixPreface to First Edition xxiAcknowledgments xxiiiPart I The Periglacial Domain 11 Introduction 31.1 The Periglacial Concept 31.2 Diagnostic Criteria 41.3 Periglacial Environments 51.4 The Periglacial Domain 61.5 The Periglacial Domain and the Cryosphere 91.6 Disciplinary Considerations 101.6.1 The Growth of Geocryology 101.6.2 The Challenge of Quaternary Science 111.6.3 Periglacial Geomorphology or Cold-Region Geomorphology? 121.7 Societal Considerations 121.8 The Growth of Periglacial Knowledge 132 Periglacial Climates 172.1 Boundary Conditions 172.2 Cold Deserts 172.3 Regional Climates 192.3.1 High Arctic Climates 222.3.2 Continental Climates 242.3.3 Alpine Climates 242.3.4 Montane Climates 252.3.5 Climates of Low Annual Temperature Range 252.3.6 Antarctica: A Special Case 262.4 Snow and Ice 262.5 Wind 282.6 Ground Climates 282.6.1 The ‘n’-Factor 282.6.2 TheThermal Offset 292.6.3 The Ground Temperature Regime 312.7 Periglacial Climates and Global Climate Change 352.7.1 Basic Facts 372.7.2 Why Climate–Cryosphere Interactions Accelerate ClimateWarming 383 Periglacial Ecosystems 413.1 General Statement 413.2 Biogeographic Zonation and Major Vegetation Types 413.3 Adaptations to Cold, Snow,Wind and Aridity 443.4 The Effect of Vegetation 443.5 The Polar Deserts 473.5.1 High Polar Deserts 473.5.2 The Polar Semi-Deserts 473.6 The Polar Desert–Tundra Transition 493.7 The Low-Arctic Tundra 493.8 The Forest–Tundra Bioclimatic Boundary (The Tree Line) 533.9 The Boreal Forest 563.10 The Alpine and Montane Ecosystems 583.11 Antarctica – A Special Case 603.12 Periglacial Ecosystems and Climate Change 61Part II Frozen Ground and Permafrost 634 Ground Freezing, Permafrost and the Active Layer 654.1 Introduction 654.2 Ground Freezing 654.2.1 Basic Concepts 654.2.2 Ice Segregation 674.2.3 ‘The Frozen Fringe’ 694.2.4 Frost Heave 694.3 Perennially-Frozen Ground (Permafrost) 704.4 Moisture and IceWithin Permafrost 724.5 Thermal and Physical Properties 734.5.1 The Geothermal Regime 734.5.2 The TTOP Model 764.5.3 Physical Properties 774.5.4 Thermal Properties 784.6 Permafrost Hydrology 784.6.1 Aquifers 794.6.2 Hydrochemistry 804.6.3 Groundwater Icings 814.7 The Active Layer 824.7.1 Terminology 824.7.2 The Active-LayerThermal Regime 834.7.3 The Transient Layer 834.7.4 The Stefan Equation 845 Permafrost Distribution and Stability 875.1 Introduction 875.2 Controls over Permafrost Distribution 875.2.1 Relief and Aspect 875.2.2 Rock Type 885.2.3 Vegetation 905.2.4 Snow Cover 905.2.5 Fire 925.2.6 Lakes and SurfaceWater Bodies 925.3 Spatial Extent of Permafrost and Frozen Ground 935.3.1 Latitudinal Permafrost 935.3.2 Alpine (Mountain) Permafrost 955.3.3 Montane Permafrost 985.3.4 Seasonally-Frozen Ground 1005.4 Sub-Sea and Relict Permafrost 1015.4.1 Sub-Sea Permafrost 1015.4.2 Relict (Terrestrial) Permafrost 1015.5 Permafrost and Ecosystems 1025.6 Permafrost Monitoring and Mapping 1045.6.1 CALM and GTN-P (TSP) 1045.6.2 BTS and Mountain Permafrost Probability Mapping 1065.7 ClimateWarming and Permafrost 1065.7.1 Evidence forWarming Permafrost 1075.7.2 Evidence for Thawing Permafrost 1096 Ground Ice and Cryostratigraphy 1116.1 Introduction 1116.2 Quantitative Parameters 1116.3 Epigenetic, Syngenetic and Polygenetic Permafrost 1126.4 Classification 1136.4.1 The Russian Approach 1136.4.2 The North American Approach 1146.5 Main Ground Ice Types 1156.5.1 Pore Ice 1156.5.2 Segregated Ice 1166.5.3 Intrusive Ice 1176.5.4 Vein Ice 1186.5.5 Other Types of Ice 1186.6 Ice Distribution 1186.6.1 Amounts 1186.6.2 Distribution with Depth 1206.6.3 Ice in Bedrock 1206.6.4 Ice in Poorly-Lithified Sediments 1216.7 Cryostratigraphy and Cryolithology 1246.7.1 Cryostructural Analysis 1256.7.2 Cryostructures of Epigenetic and Syngenetic Permafrost 1286.7.3 Thaw Unconformities 1296.7.4 Aggradational Ice 1316.7.5 Icy Bodies and Ice, Sand and Soil Pseudomorphs 1316.8 Ice Crystallography 1326.9 Ice Geochemistry 1336.10 Massive Ice and Massive-Icy Bodies 1336.10.1 Nature and Extent 1346.10.2 Intra-Sedimental Ice 1356.10.3 Buried Glacier Ice 1366.11 Cryostratigraphy and Past Environments 1367 Aggradational Permafrost Landforms 1397.1 Introduction 1397.2 How Does Permafrost Aggrade? 1397.2.1 The Illisarvik Drained-Lake Experiment 1397.3 Thermal-Contraction-Crack Polygons 1417.3.1 Coefficients ofThermal Expansion and Contraction 1417.3.2 Ice, Sand and Soil (‘Ground’)Wedges 1447.3.3 Development of the Polygon Net 1447.3.4 Polygon Morphology 1457.3.5 Controls over Cracking 1477.3.6 Climatic Significance 1507.4 Ice and SandWedges 1517.4.1 EpigeneticWedges 1547.4.2 SyngeneticWedges 1547.4.3 Anti-SyngeneticWedges 1567.4.4 Growth and Deformation ofWedges 1567.5 Organic Terrain 1567.5.1 Palsas 1577.5.2 Peat Plateaus 1587.6 Frost Mounds 1587.6.1 Perennial-FrostMounds 1587.6.2 Hydraulic (Open) System Pingos 1597.6.3 Hydrostatic (Closed) System Pingos 1617.6.4 Other Perennial-FrostMounds 1657.6.5 Seasonal-Frost Mounds 1657.6.6 Hydrolaccoliths and Other Frost-Induced Mounds 1658 Thermokarst Processes and Landforms 1698.1 Introduction 1698.2 Thawing Ground 1698.2.1 Thaw Strain andThaw Settlement 1698.2.2 Potential Depths of Soil Freezing andThawing 1708.2.3 The Development of Thermokarst 1708.3 Causes ofThermokarst 1718.3.1 General Comments 1728.3.2 Specific Causes 1748.4 Thaw-Related Processes 1768.4.1 Thermokarst Subsidence (Thaw Settlement) 1768.4.2 Thermal Erosion 1768.4.3 Other Processes 1768.5 Thermokarst Sediments and Structures 1778.5.1 Involuted Sediments 1778.5.2 Retrogressive-Thaw-Slumps and Debris-Flow Deposits 1788.5.3 Ice-Wedge Pseudomorphs and Composite-Wedge Casts 1798.5.4 Ice, Silt, Sand and Gravel Pseudomorphs 1808.6 Thermokarst Landscapes 1818.6.1 The Alas-Thermokarst Relief of Central Yakutia 1828.6.2 TheWestern North American Arctic 1858.6.3 The Ice-Fee Areas of Continental Antarctica 1858.7 Ice-Wedge Thermokarst Relief 1868.7.1 Low-Centred Polygons 1868.7.2 High-Centred Polygons 1868.7.3 BadlandThermokarst Relief 1868.8 Thaw Lakes and Depressions 1878.8.1 Lakes and Táliks 1898.8.2 Morphology 1898.8.3 Growth and Drainage 1898.8.4 OrientedThaw Lakes 191Part III Periglacial Geomorphology 1939 Cold-ClimateWeathering 1959.1 Introduction 1959.2 GeneralWeathering Facts 1959.3 Freezing and Thawing Indices 1969.4 Rock (Frost?) Shattering 1979.4.1 Frost Action and Ice Segregation 1979.4.2 Insolation and Thermal Shock 2009.4.3 Perspective 2029.5 ChemicalWeathering 2049.5.1 Karkevagge 2049.5.2 Solution and Karstification 2059.5.3 SaltWeathering 2089.6 CryogenicWeathering 2089.6.1 Cryogenic Disintegration 2109.6.2 The Coefficient of Cryogenic Contrast 2109.6.3 Physico-Chemical Changes 2129.6.4 Problematic Phenomena 2129.7 CryobiologicalWeathering 2139.8 Rates of Cold-Climate BedrockWeathering 2149.9 Cryosols and Cryopedology 2159.9.1 Cryosols 2159.9.2 Classification 2169.9.3 Cryosolic Micromorphology 21610 Mass-Wasting Processes and Active-Layer Phenomena 21910.1 Introduction 21910.2 Slow Mass-Wasting Processes 21910.2.1 Solifluction 21910.2.2 Frost Creep 22110.2.3 Gelifluction 22310.2.4 Solifluction Deposits and Phenomena 22310.3 Rapid Mass-Wasting Processes 22610.3.1 Active-Layer-Detachment Slides 22610.3.2 Debris Flows, Slush Flows and Avalanches 22610.3.3 Rockfall 23010.4 Snow Hydrology and Slopewash Processes 23210.4.1 Snow Hydrology and Snowbanks 23310.4.2 Surface and SubsurfaceWash 23310.5 Active-Layer Phenomena 23510.5.1 Frost Heaving 23510.5.2 Bedrock Heave 23510.5.3 Upward Heaving of Stones and Objects 23510.5.4 Stone Tilting 23710.5.5 Needle Ice 23910.5.6 Frost Sorting 23910.5.7 Cryoturbation 24010.6 Patterned Ground 24010.6.1 Sorted and Non-Sorted Circles 24010.6.2 Mud Boils 24310.6.3 Nets and Stripes 24611 Azonal Processes and Landforms 24711.1 Introduction 24711.2 Fluvial Processes and Landforms 24711.2.1 Major Rivers 24811.2.2 Freeze-Up and Break-Up 25111.2.3 Basin Hydrology 25211.2.4 Sediment Flow, Surface Transport and Denudation 25511.2.5 Channel Morphology 25611.3 Lakes and Lake Ice 25911.3.1 Lake Ice and Climate Change 25911.3.2 Perennially-Frozen Lakes 26011.4 Coastal Processes and Landforms 26011.4.1 Sea Ice 26011.4.2 Sea Ice,Wave Generation and Sediment Transport 26111.4.3 Ice on the Beach and the Near-Shore 26211.4.4 The Influence of Permafrost 26411.4.5 Cold-Climate Deltas 26611.5 Aeolian Processes, Sediments and Landforms 26711.5.1 Wind Abrasion 26811.5.2 Wind Deflation 27111.5.3 Sand Dunes and Sand Sheets 27111.5.4 Niveo-Aeolian Sediments 27311.5.5 Loess-Like Silt 27412 Slope Development and Landscape Evolution 27512.1 Introduction 27512.2 Slope Morphology 27512.2.1 The Free-Face Slope 27512.2.2 Rectilinear Debris-Mantled Slopes 27812.2.3 Convexo-Concavo Debris-Mantled Slopes 27812.2.4 Pediment-Like Slopes and Inselberg-Like Hills 28012.2.5 Stepped Profiles 28112.3 Slope and Valley Development 28412.3.1 Slope Asymmetry 28412.4 Frozen and Thawing Slopes 28712.4.1 Frozen Ground (Permafrost) Creep 28712.4.2 Rock Glaciers 28812.4.3 Thaw Consolidation and the Stability of Thawing Slopes 29012.5 Periglacial Slope Evolution 29312.5.1 The Davisian (Peltier)Model 29312.5.2 Cryoplanation 29512.5.3 Richter Denudation Slopes 29512.6 Landscape Inheritance 29612.6.1 The Uplands of Northern Interior Yukon 29612.6.2 A Perspective 298Part IV Pleistocene Periglacial Environments 29913 The Pleistocene Periglacial Domain 30113.1 Introduction 30113.2 The Time Scale and Climatic Fluctuations 30113.3 Global (Eustatic) Considerations 30413.3.1 Sea-Level Changes 30413.3.2 Uplift of Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau 30413.4 Past Glaciations, Permafrost and Frozen Ground 30513.4.1 Extent of Past Glaciations 30513.4.2 Relict Permafrost 30613.5 Pleistocene Periglacial Environments 30713.5.1 General Considerations 30713.5.2 Problems of Palaeo-Environmental Reconstruction 30813.5.3 Ice Age Mammals and Ecosystems 30913.6 The Pleistocene Periglacial Domain in the Northern Hemisphere 31213.6.1 Extent of LPM Permafrost 31313.6.2 Western, Central and Southern Europe 31313.6.3 Eastern Europe and Kazakhstan 31513.6.4 Southern, Central and Northern Siberia 31713.6.5 Western and North-Eastern China 31713.6.6 North America 31913.7 The Pleistocene Periglacial Domain in the Southern Circumpolar Region 32114 Previously-Frozen Ground 32314.1 Introduction 32314.2 Past Permafrost Aggradation 32314.2.1 The Palaeo-Active Layer and AssociatedWeathering Characteristics 32314.2.2 Fragipans and the Palaeo-Permafrost Table 32614.2.3 Secondary Precipitates and Clay Minerals 32614.3 Frost-Fissure Pseudomorphs and Casts 32714.3.1 Terminology Relevant to Pleistocene-Age Structures in Unfrozen Sediments 32714.3.2 Ice-Wedge Pseudomorphs 32914.3.3 Sand Veins, Sand-Wedge Casts and Composite-Wedge Casts 33114.3.4 Frost Cracking: Seasonal or Perennial? 33214.4 Frost-Mound Remnants 33314.5 Past Permafrost Degradation 33514.5.1 Thermokarst Depressions 33514.5.2 Thermokarst Involutions and ‘Sediment-Filled Pots’ 33614.5.3 Large-Scale Soft-Sediment Deformations 33814.5.4 Non-Diastrophic Structures in Bedrock 33914.6 Summary 34115 Pleistocene Periglaciation 34315.1 Introduction 34315.2 Intense Frost Action 34315.2.1 Frost-Disturbed Bedrock 34315.2.2 Mountain-Top Detritus (‘Blockfields’) 34415.2.3 Tors 34715.2.4 Stratified Slope Deposits 34715.2.5 Frost-Disturbed Soils, Periglacial Involutions and Patterned Ground 34715.3 MassWasting and Aeolian-Linked Sediment Deposition 35115.3.1 Geological ‘Time Travellers’ 35115.3.2 Head or Solifluction Deposits 35315.3.3 ‘Yedoma’ and ‘Muck’ deposits 35315.3.4 Loess and Aeolian Silt 35515.4 Wind Abrasion and Aeolian Sediment Transport 35815.4.1 Wind-Abraded Rocks 35915.4.2 Aeolian Sand Deposition 36015.5 DrainageModification 36015.5.1 Ice-Marginal Drainage 36115.5.2 River and Valley Incision in Ice-Free Areas 36215.5.3 Enlargement of the Drainage Network 36415.5.4 Asymmetrical Valley Development 36415.6 Planation and Cryopedimentation 36615.7 A Perspective on Periglaciation 36615.7.1 The Example of Central and Southern England 36715.7.2 General Conclusions 369Part V Human Occupance and The Periglacial Environment 37116 Urban and Social Infrastructure 37316.1 Introduction 37316.2 Human Occupance 37316.3 Human-Induced Thermokarst 37516.3.1 Early Siberian and North American Experience 37516.3.2 The Rapidity of Change 37616.4 Cold-Regions Engineering 37816.4.1 General Principles 37816.4.2 General Solutions 37916.5 Provision of Municipal Infrastructure in Northern Canada 38416.5.1 Inuvik, NWT 38416.5.2 Dawson City, Yukon Territory 38416.5.3 Yellowknife, NWT 38716.5.4 Thompson, Northern Manitoba 39016.6 The Alaskan Experience: The Example of Fairbanks 39016.7 Water-Supply Problems 39216.8 Urban Infrastructure and Climate Change 39216.8.1 The Russian North 39216.8.2 Other Areas 39416.8.3 Related Socio-Economic Changes 39617 Transportation and Resource Development 39917.1 Introduction 39917.2 Rivers as Highways 39917.3 Roads and Highways 40117.3.1 Winter Roads 40117.3.2 All-Season Roads 40117.4 Railways 40517.4.1 The Hudson Bay Railway, Canada 40517.4.2 The Qinghai-Tibet Railway (QTR), China 40617.5 Bridge Construction 40617.6 Runways and Airstrips 41017.7 Oil and Gas Development 41117.7.1 Exploration Problems 41117.7.2 Exploratory Drilling andWaste-Drilling-Fluid Disposal Problems 41417.7.3 Pipelines and Permafrost 41517.8 Mining Activities 41917.8.1 Placer Gold Mining Operations 41917.8.2 Opencast Mining 42017.8.3 Containment andWaste Disposal 420References 423Index 503