Optical Beam Control

Imaging Satellites and Laser Systems

Inbunden, Engelska, 2025

Av Brij N. Agrawal, Jae Jun Kim, Sachin Agrawal, CA) Agrawal, Brij N. (Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA) Kim, Jae Jun (Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, Brij N Agrawal

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OPTICAL BEAM CONTROLImaging Satellites and Laser Systems The authors have designed this timely new book in response to the need for up-to-date and complete coverage of multi-disciplinary basic principles of optical beam control for imaging satellites and laser systems. As the uses of imaging satellites and laser systems increase, optical beam control for these systems will occupy engineers and scientists for years to come. The book introduces space telescopes, ground telescopes, laser communications, and high energy laser systems, covering light sources, lenses, wave optics, diffraction, and polarization, as well as fine pointing control, classical control, modern control, Kalman filters, sensors, actuators, flexible control, slew maneuvers, and acquisition, tracking, and pointing. The authors have over 30 years’ experience in research, development, and testing of complex state-of-art systems, such as 3-meter diameter segmented mirror space telescopes and high energy laser beam control systems. As a text and reference dealing with basics of optical beam control, this book includes information on: Sources of aberrations, vibration and jitter, optical aberrations, air turbulence, and measure of optical aberrationsVibration isolation and jitter control, active jitter control, strap down, and inertial stable platformAdaptive optics, wavefront sensors, wavefront reconstruction, adaptive optics configurations, and control systemsImaging satellites, telescope design, optical train components, image aberration, and performance analysisLaser beam control hardware, laser aberration, and laser performance analysisOptical Beam Control is an essential reference for engineers working in imaging satellites and laser systems along with electrical engineers focused on optics, satellites, lasers, and control systems. The text is also valuable for students taking courses on laser technology, satellite control, spacecraft design, and optics and photonics.

Produktinformation

Utgivningsdatum2025-10-21
Mått185 x 262 x 27 mm
Vikt804 g
FormatInbunden
SpråkEngelska
Antal sidor352
FörlagJohn Wiley & Sons Inc
ISBN9781119830245

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Dr. Brij N. Agrawal is a Distinguished Professor in the Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering and Director of the Spacecraft Research and Design Center at Naval Postgraduate School (NPS). Dr. Jae Jun Kim joined the NPS in 2005. He is currently a Research Associate Professor in the Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering. Sachin Agrawal is an Engineer who has worked on spacecraft guidance, navigation, and control at Maxar Technologies and Lockheed Martin.

Preface xviiAcknowledgments xix1 Introduction 11.1 Optical Beam 11.2 Telescopes 21.2.1 Space Telescope 31.2.1.1 Hubble Space Telescope 31.2.1.2 James Webb Space Telescope 51.2.2 Ground Telescope 81.2.2.1 Keck Telescope 81.3 Laser Systems 101.3.1 High-power Laser Systems 111.3.1.1 Airborne Laser System 111.3.2 Low Power Laser Systems 121.3.2.1 Laser Communications Relay Demonstration 131.4 Optical Beam Control Challenges 152 Optics 172.1 Light Sources 172.1.1 Point Source and Extended Source 172.1.2 Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources 182.1.3 Polarized and Unpolarized Light Sources 192.1.4 Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation 192.2 Properties of Light 212.2.1 Interference 212.2.2 Polarization 232.2.3 Doppler Effect 242.2.4 Light Propagation in Vacuum 242.2.5 Light Interaction with Different Media 252.2.6 Transmission and Reflection 252.2.7 Refraction 262.2.8 Diffraction 272.2.9 Absorption 282.2.10 Scattering 282.3 Geometric Optics 292.3.1 Lens 292.3.2 Mirrors 312.3.3 Image Formation Using Lenses and Mirrors 322.3.4 Geometric Optics for Telescopes and Microscopes 342.3.5 Geometric Optics for 4f Optical System 362.4 Physical Optics and Fourier Optics 372.4.1 Scalar Diffraction Theory 372.4.2 Fourier Optics 382.4.3 Amplitude Spread Function and Point Spread Function 392.4.4 Coherent and Incoherent Imaging System 402.4.5 Optical Transfer Function and Modulation Transfer Function 403 Feedback Control 433.1 Foundations of Classical Control 433.1.1 The Laplace Transform 433.1.2 The Inverse Laplace Transform 443.1.3 Transfer Functions, Zeros, Poles 443.1.3.1 dc Motor Dynamics Model 453.1.4 First-order Systems 473.1.5 Second-order Systems 473.1.5.1 Effect of Zeros on the Response 503.1.5.2 Bounded-Input Bounded-Output (BIBO) Stability 513.1.6 Basic Equations for Feedback 513.1.6.1 Tracking, Regulation, and Noise 533.1.7 System Type 533.1.8 Basic Feedback Controllers 543.1.8.1 Proportional Control 543.1.8.2 Integral Control 543.1.8.3 Derivative Control 553.1.8.4 Proportional–integral–derivative Control 563.1.8.5 Heuristic Tuning of the PID Controller 573.1.8.6 Velocity Feedback (Rate Feedback) Control 593.1.8.7 Feedforward Control 593.2 The Root Locus 603.2.1 The Root Locus Technique 603.3 Frequency Response Methods 653.3.1 Bode Plots 653.3.1.1 Bode Plot Construction 653.3.1.2 Non-minimum Phase Transfer Functions 683.3.1.3 Relating Root Locus to Bode Plots 703.3.2 Gain and Phase Margin 713.3.3 Lead and Lag Compensator Design 723.3.3.1 Pure Gain Compensation 723.3.3.2 Lead Compensation 733.3.3.3 Lag Compensation 763.3.3.4 Lead-lag Compensation 773.3.3.5 Summary of Lead and Lag Control Techniques 783.3.4 PID Compensation in the Frequency Domain 793.3.5 Time Delay on a Bode Plot 793.3.6 Summary of Classical Design Techniques 813.4 Flexible Control 833.4.1 Second-order Filters 863.4.2 Colocated Control Design 873.4.3 Non-colocated Control Design 913.4.4 Non-colocated Control Design Solution 923.5 State-space Models 943.5.1 Linearization of a System 973.5.2 The Matrix Exponential 1023.5.2.1 Computing e At and Modal Interpretation 1033.5.3 State-space Stability 1053.5.3.1 Canonical Forms 1063.5.4 State Feedback Design 1083.5.5 Controllability 1093.5.5.1 Pole-placement 1113.5.6 Reference Input Design in State-space 1133.5.7 Estimator Design in State-space 1143.5.8 Observability 1153.5.9 The Separation Theorem 1173.5.9.1 Closed-loop Poles 1193.6 Introduction to Discrete-time Systems 1193.6.1 Discrete-time Linear Dynamical Systems 1213.6.1.1 Solution of Discrete-time Linear Dynamical Systems 1223.6.2 Block Toeplitz Matrices in Discrete-time Systems 1233.7 Introduction to Optimal Control 1233.7.1 Linear Algebra Review 1233.7.1.1 Vector Operations 1243.7.1.2 Matrix Multiplication 1243.7.1.3 Subspaces 1243.7.1.4 Range, Null Space, and Rank 1253.7.1.5 Orthonormal Basis and Orthogonal Complement 1263.7.1.6 Properties of Orthonormal Sets and Semi-orthogonal Matrices 1263.7.1.7 Orthogonal Complement 1263.7.2 Linear Equations 1273.7.3 Symmetric Matrices, Positive Definiteness, and Ellipsoids 1273.7.3.1 Ellipsoids 1273.7.4 Estimation and Control Problems 1273.7.5 Singular Value Decomposition 1283.7.5.1 Control Ellipsoid 1293.7.5.2 Condition Number 1303.7.6 Least Squares Estimation 1313.7.6.1 Derivation of Least Squares Solution 1313.7.6.2 Linear Regression 1323.7.7 Minimum-norm Optimization 1323.7.8 Multiobjective Least Squares 1363.7.9 Completing the Square 1373.7.10 Block Matrix Inversion 1373.7.11 The Linear Quadratic Regulator 1383.7.11.1 Dynamic Programming Approach 1383.7.11.2 Summary of LQR Solution via Dynamic Programming 1403.7.11.3 Steady-state Regulator 1403.7.12 Probability Review 1423.7.12.1 Random Variables 1433.7.12.2 Random Vectors 1453.7.12.3 Marginal Distributions 1473.7.12.4 Conditional Distributions 1483.7.13 Mean Squared Error 1493.7.14 Linear Model with Noise 1503.7.15 MAP and MMSE Estimates 1503.7.16 The Kalman Filter 1503.7.16.1 State Estimation Notation 1513.7.16.2 The Measurement Update 1513.7.16.3 Time Update 1523.7.16.4 Summary of the Kalman Filter Recursion 1523.7.16.5 Riccati Recursion 1523.7.16.6 Steady-state Kalman Filter 1524 Sources of Aberrations 1574.1 Vibration and Jitter 1574.1.1 Platform Jitter 1574.1.2 Atmospheric Jitter 1584.2 Optical Aberrations 1584.2.1 Defocus and Spherical Aberration 1584.2.2 Coma Aberration 1594.2.3 Astigmatism Aberration 1594.2.4 Field Curvature 1604.2.5 Image Distortion 1614.2.6 Chromatic Aberration 1614.2.7 Optical Surface Errors 1614.3 Air Turbulence 1624.3.1 Kolmogorov Theory 1624.3.2 Air Turbulence Parameters 1634.3.2.1 Refractive Index Structure Parameter 1634.3.2.2 Fried’s Atmospheric Coherence Length 1654.3.2.3 Greenwood Frequency 1664.3.2.4 Isoplanatic Angle 1664.3.2.5 Rytov Parameter 1674.3.3 Non-Kolmogorov Atmospheric Turbulence 1674.3.4 Effect of Air Turbulence in Optical Beam Propagation 1674.3.4.1 Beam Jitter 1674.3.4.2 Beam Spreading 1674.3.4.3 Scintillation 1684.4 Measure of Aberrations 1694.4.1 Point Spread Function 1694.4.2 Optical Transfer Function and Modular Transfer Function 1704.4.3 Encircled and Ensquared Energy 1714.4.4 Wavefront Error 1714.4.5 Strehl Ratio 1725 Vibration Isolation and Jitter Control 1755.1 Introduction 1755.2 Passive Vibration and Jitter Control 1775.2.1 Passive Vibration Control 1785.2.1.1 Viscoelastic Devices 1785.2.1.2 Viscous Devices 1795.2.1.3 Magnetic Devices 1805.2.1.4 Passive Piezoelectrics 1815.2.1.5 Tuned Mass Dampers 1815.3 Active Vibration and Jitter Control 1845.3.1 Actuators 1845.3.1.1 Voice Coils 1845.3.1.2 Piezoceramic 1845.3.1.3 Fast Steering Mirrors 1885.3.1.4 Jitter Sensor 1895.3.2 Control Algorithms 1905.3.2.1 Transverse Filter 1905.3.3 Active Optics Beam Jitter Control 1915.3.3.1 Experimental Results 1935.3.4 Slew Maneuvers 1935.3.4.1 Bang–Bang Profile 1945.3.4.2 Versine Profile 1955.3.4.3 Input Shaping 1955.3.5 Reference Laser Beam 1975.4 Active Vibration Isolation 1995.4.1 Ultra Quiet Platform 1995.4.2 Precision Pointing Hexapod 2016 Adaptive Optics 2036.1 Introduction 2036.2 Wave Front Sensors 2056.2.1 Shack–Hartman Wavefront Sensor 2056.2.2 Curvature Wavefront Sensor 2066.2.2.1 Intensity Difference and Curvature 2076.2.2.2 Poisson Equation for Wavefront Reconstruction 2076.2.3 Pyramid Wavefront Sensor 2076.2.3.1 Intensity Difference Calculation 2086.2.3.2 Reconstructing the Wavefront Error 2086.2.4 Choosing a Sensor 2086.3 Wave Reconstruction 2086.3.1 Zonal Method 2096.3.1.1 Hudgin Grid Pattern 2096.3.1.2 Southwell Grid Pattern 2096.3.1.3 Fried Grid Pattern 2096.3.2 Least Squares Solution 2106.3.3 Modal Reconstruction 2106.4 Fast Steering Mirrors and Deformable Mirrors 2116.4.1 Fast Steering Mirrors 2116.4.1.1 Voice Coil Actuated FSM 2126.4.1.2 Piezoelectric Actuated Mirrors 2126.4.1.3 Identification of the FSM Dynamics 2136.4.2 Deformable Mirrors 2136.4.2.1 DM Characteristics 2146.4.2.2 Types of DMs 2156.4.2.3 Comparison of DMs 2176.4.2.4 DMs for NPS Multi-conjugate AO Testbed 2186.5 AO Configurations 2196.5.1 Conventional AO System 2196.5.2 Laser Guide Star AO 2206.5.3 Multi-conjugate AO System 2216.5.4 Woofer–Tweeter AO System 2236.5.5 Beaconless Target-in-the-loop System 2256.6 AO Control 2266.6.1 Influence Function and Influence Matrix 2266.6.2 Closed-loop Feedback AO Control System Design 2287 Imaging Satellites 2337.1 Introduction 2337.2 Telescope Designs 2337.2.1 Optical Beam Aberrations 2347.2.1.1 Spherical Aberration (Third Order) 2347.2.1.2 Coma (Fifth Order) 2347.2.1.3 Astigmatism (Seventh Order) 2347.2.1.4 Curvature of Field (Ninth Order) 2357.2.2 Telescopes 2357.2.3 Cassegrain Telescopes 2377.2.4 Ritchey–Chrétien Telescope 2387.2.5 Three-mirror Anastigmat Telescope 2397.3 Telescope Performance 2407.3.1 Diffraction 2407.3.1.1 Beam Propagation 2417.3.1.2 Modulation Transfer Function 2437.3.1.3 Optical Transfer Function 2457.3.1.4 Resolution 2457.3.2 Object Image Generation 2467.3.2.1 Digital Focal Plane 2467.3.2.2 Ground Sampling Distance 2477.3.2.3 Quality Factor 2477.3.2.4 Ground Resolution Distance 2487.3.2.5 Jitter Requirements 2487.3.2.6 Pointing Accuracy 2487.3.3 Example 2497.3.4 Sampling MTF 2507.3.5 Aliasing 2507.4 Optical Components 2527.4.1 Focal Plane 2527.4.1.1 Focal Plane Technology 2527.4.1.2 Focal Plane Devices 2537.4.2 Operation Concepts 2547.4.2.1 Pushbroom Scanner 2567.4.2.2 Whiskbroom Scanner 2567.4.2.3 Step-stare Scanner 2567.4.2.4 Comparison of push broom and starring imaging 2577.5 Image Aberration 2577.5.1 Pointing, Jitter, and Smear 2577.5.2 National Image Interpretability Rating Scale 2597.5.2.1 Signal-to-noise Ratio 2597.5.2.2 General Image Quality Equation 2597.5.2.3 Edge Response Function 2607.6 Space Telescopes 2607.6.1 Segmented Mirror Telescope 2607.6.1.1 Optical Configuration 2617.6.1.2 Analytical Model 2617.6.1.3 First-order Modeling to Develop Sensitivities 2647.6.1.4 Experimental Verification 2667.7 Telescope Design Example 2687.7.1 Misson 2687.7.1.1 Requirements 2687.7.2 Trade Space 2697.7.3 Optical Telescope Design 2697.7.3.1 Image Collection 2707.7.4 Telescope Components 2738 Laser Systems 2758.1 Laser Fundamentals 2758.1.1 Stimulated Emission 2758.1.2 Resonant Cavities 2768.1.3 Laser Characteristics 2778.1.3.1 Monochromaticity 2778.1.3.2 Coherence 2778.1.3.3 Polarization 2778.1.3.4 Mode Shapes 2778.1.4 Type of Lasers 2788.1.4.1 Gas Lasers 2788.1.4.2 Diode Lasers 2788.1.4.3 Dye Lasers 2788.1.4.4 Solid-state Lasers 2788.1.4.5 Fiber Laser 2788.1.4.6 Chemical Lasers 2788.1.4.7 Free-electron Lasers 2798.1.4.8 Continuous Wave Lasers 2798.1.4.9 Pulsed Lasers 2798.2 Laser Beam Profile 2808.3 Laser Beam Aberrations 2868.3.1 Laser Beam Aberration Metrics 2868.3.2 Laser Beam Quality 2878.3.3 Optical Component 2888.3.4 Telescope Central Obscuration 2888.3.5 Optical Jitter 2898.3.6 Higher Order Aberrations 2898.3.7 Atmospheric Transmission 2908.3.8 Scintillation 2908.3.9 Additional Sources of Laser Beam Aberrations 2918.4 Laser Beam Control Components 2928.4.1 Beam Director 2928.4.2 Fast Steering Mirrors 2938.4.3 Optical Inertial Reference Unit 2958.4.4 Light Sensors 2968.4.4.1 Photodiodes 2978.4.4.2 Focal Plane Arrays 2988.5 Visual Object Tracking 3008.5.1 Centroid Algorithm 3008.5.2 Correlation Tracker 3018.6 Beam Control for Laser Systems 3018.6.1 Acquisition, Tracking, and Pointing of Laser Systems 3018.6.1.1 Acquisition and Coarse Tracking 3028.6.1.2 Fine Tracking and Pointing 3028.6.2 Optical Jitter Control for LOS Stabilization 3048.6.3 Adaptive Optics for Laser Systems 3048.7 Free-space Laser Communication System 3048.7.1 Space Laser Communication Terminal 3068.7.1.1 Telescope 3068.7.1.2 Optical Beam Jitter Control for LOS Stabilization 3078.7.1.3 Acquisition, Tracking, and Pointing 3078.7.2 Optical Ground Stations 3088.7.3 Optical Transmitter and Receiver Modem 3108.7.3.1 Laser Source 3108.7.3.2 Coding and Modulation 3108.7.3.3 Fiber Amplifier 3118.7.3.4 Demodulation 3118.7.3.5 Detector 3118.7.4 Optical Link Analysis 3118.8 High-energy Laser Systems 3128.8.1 Overview of High-energy Laser Beam Control 3128.8.1.1 High-energy Laser Source 3138.8.1.2 Acquisition, Tracking, and Pointing 3148.8.1.3 Optical Jitter Control for LOS Stabilization 3158.8.1.4 Atmospheric Turbulence Compensation 3158.8.2 Airborne Laser System 3158.8.2.1 Acquisition, Tracking, and Pointing of ABL System 3178.8.2.2 LOS Stabilization of ABL System 318Index 319