One-Dimensional Nanostructures

TIANYOU ZHAI, PhD, is a Faculty at the Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Tsinghua University, P. R. China. His research interests include the controlled fabrication, novel properties and optoelectronic applications of semiconductor nanostructures.JIANNIAN YAO, PhD, is a Professor of Chemistry and Materials Science at the Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences. He is also the chairman of the Chinese Chemical Society and the Vice President of the National Natural Science Foundation of China. His research focuses on opto-functional materials.

• Foreword xvPreface xviiContributors xix1 One-Dimensional Semiconductor Nanostructure Growth with Templates 1Zhang Zhang and Stephan Senz1.1 Introduction, 11.2 Anodic Aluminum Oxide (AAO) as Templates, 41.2.1 Synthesis of Self-Organized AAO Membrane, 41.2.2 Synthesis of Polycrystalline Si Nanotubes, 51.2.3 AAO as Template for Si Nanowire Epitaxy, 81.3 Conclusion and Outlook, 16Acknowledgments, 16References, 162 Metal–Ligand Systems for Construction of One-Dimensional Nanostructures 19Rub´en Mas-Ballest´e and F´elix Zamora2.1 Introduction, 192.2 Microstructures Based on 1D Coordination Polymers, 202.2.1 Preparation Methods, 202.2.2 Structures, 212.2.3 Shape and Size Control, 232.2.4 Methods for Study of Microstructures, 242.2.5 Formation Mechanisms, 252.2.6 Properties and Applications, 262.3 Bundles and Single Molecules on Surfaces Based on 1D Coordination Polymers, 282.3.1 Isolation Methods and Morphological Characterization, 282.3.2 Tools for the Studies at the Molecular Level, 342.3.3 Properties Studied at Single-Molecule Level, 362.4 Conclusion and Outlook, 37Acknowledgments, 38References, 383 Supercritical Fluid–Liquid–Solid (SFLS) Growth of Semiconductor Nanowires 41Brian A. Korgel3.1 Introduction, 413.2 The SFLS Growth Mechanism, 423.2.1 Supercritical Fluids as a Reaction Medium for VLS-Like Nanowire Growth, 433.2.2 SFLS-Grown Nanowires, 443.3 Properties and Applications of SFLS-Grown Nanowires, 513.3.1 Mechanical Properties, 523.3.2 Printed Nanowire Field-Effect Transistors, 573.3.3 Silicon-Nanowire-Based Lithium Ion Battery Anodes, 593.3.4 Semiconductor Nanowire Fabric, 603.3.5 Other Applications, 613.4 Conclusion and Outlook, 61Acknowledgments, 62References, 624 Colloidal Semiconductor Nanowires 65Zhen Li, Gaoqing (Max) Lu, Qiao Sun, Sean C. Smith, and Zhonghua Zhu4.1 Introduction, 654.2 Theoretical Calculations, 664.2.1 Effective Mass Multiband Method (EMMM), 664.2.2 Empirical Pseudopotential Method (EPM), 684.2.3 Charge Patching Method (CPM), 694.3 Synthesis of Colloidal Semiconductor Nanowires, 704.3.1 Oriented Attachment, 714.3.2 Template Strategy, 764.3.3 Solution–Liquid–Solid Growth, 794.4 Properties of Colloidal Semiconductor Nanowires, 854.4.1 Optical Properties of Semiconductor Nanowires, 854.4.2 Electronic Properties of Semiconductor Nanowires, 874.4.3 Magnetic Properties of Semiconductor Nanowires, 894.5 Applications of Colloidal Semiconductor Nanowires, 904.5.1 Semiconductor Nanowires for Energy Conversion, 904.5.2 Semiconductor Nanowires in Life Sciences, 924.6 Conclusion and Outlook, 94Acknowledgments, 95References, 955 Core–Shell Effect on Nucleation and Growth of Epitaxial Silicide in Nanowire of Silicon 105Yi-Chia Chou and King-Ning Tu5.1 Introduction, 1055.2 Core–Shell Effects on Materials, 1055.3 Nucleation and Growth of Silicides in Silicon Nanowires, 1065.3.1 Nanoscale Silicide Formation by Point Contact Reaction, 1075.3.2 Supply Limit Reaction in Point Contact Reactions, 1075.3.3 Repeating Event of Nucleation, 1075.4 Core–Shell Effect on Nucleation of Nanoscale Silicides, 1095.4.1 Introduction to Solid-State Nucleation, 1095.4.2 Stepflow of Si Nanowire Growth at Silicide/Si Interface, 1095.4.3 Observation of Homogeneous Nucleation in Silicide Epitaxial Growth, 1105.4.4 Theory of Homogeneous Nucleation and Correlation with Experiments, 1115.4.5 Homogeneous Nucleation–Supersaturation, 1135.4.6 Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Nucleation of Nanoscale Silicides, 113Acknowledgments, 115References, 1156 Selected Properties of Graphene and Carbon Nanotubes 119H. S. S. Ramakrishna Matte, K. S. Subrahmanyam, A. Govindaraj, and C. N. R. Rao6.1 Introduction, 1196.2 Structure and Properties of Graphene, 1196.2.1 Electronic Structure, 1196.2.2 Raman Spectroscopy, 1206.2.3 Chemical Doping, 1216.2.4 Electronic and Magnetic Properties, 1226.2.5 Molecular Charge Transfer, 1276.2.6 Decoration with Metal Nanoparticles, 1286.3 Structure and Properties of Carbon Nanotubes, 1306.3.1 Structure, 1306.3.2 Raman Spectroscopy, 1326.3.3 Electrical Properties, 1336.3.4 Doping, 1346.3.5 Molecular Charge Transfer, 1366.3.6 Decoration with Metal Nanoparticles, 1376.4 Conclusion and Outlook, 138References, 1387 One-Dimensional Semiconductor Nanowires: Synthesis and Raman Scattering 145Jun Zhang, Jian Wu, and Qihua Xiong7.1 Introduction, 1457.2 Synthesis and Growth Mechanism of 1D Semiconductor Nanowires, 1467.2.1 Nanowire Synthesis, 1467.2.2 Synthesis of 1D Semiconductor Nanowires, 1477.2.3 1D Semiconductor Heterostructures, 1517.3 Raman Scattering in 1D Nanowires, 1537.3.1 Phonon Confinement Effect, 1537.3.2 Radial Breathing Modes, 1557.3.3 Surface Phonon Modes, 1567.3.4 Antenna Effect, 1587.3.5 Stimulated Raman Scattering, 1607.4 Conclusions and Outlook, 161Acknowledgment, 161References, 1618 Optical Properties and Applications of Hematite (α-Fe2O3) Nanostructures 167Yichuan Ling, Damon A. Wheeler, Jin Zhong Zhang, and Yat Li8.1 Introduction, 1678.2 Synthesis of 1D Hematite Nanostructures, 1678.2.1 Nanowires, 1688.2.2 Nanotubes, 1698.2.3 Element-Doped 1D Hematite Structures, 1708.3 Optical Properties, 1718.3.1 Electronic Transitions in Hematite, 1718.3.2 Steady-State Absorption, 1728.3.3 Photoluminescence, 1748.4 Charge Carrier Dynamics in Hematite, 1758.4.1 Background on Time-Resolved Studies of Nanostructures, 1758.4.2 Carrier Dynamics of Hematite Nanostructures, 1758.5 Applications, 1788.5.1 Photocatalysis, 1788.5.2 Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting, 1798.5.3 Photovoltaics, 1808.5.4 Gas Sensors, 1818.5.5 Conclusion And Outlook, 181Acknowledgments, 181References, 1819 Doping Effect on Novel Optical Properties of Semiconductor Nanowires 185Bingsuo Zou, Guozhang Dai, and Ruibin Liu9.1 Introduction, 1859.2 Results and Discussion, 1859.2.1 Bound Exciton Condensation in Mn(II)-Doped ZnO Nanowire, 1859.2.2 Fe(III)-Doped ZnO Nanowire and Visible Emission Cavity Modes, 1929.2.3 Sn(IV) Periodically Doped CdS Nanowire and Coupled Optical Cavity Modes, 1999.3 Conclusion and Outlook, 203Acknowledgment, 203References, 20310 Quantum Confinement Phenomena in Bioinspired and Biological Peptide Nanostructures 207Gil Rosenman and Nadav Amdursky10.1 Introduction, 20710.2 Bioinspired Peptide Nanostructures, 20810.3 Peptide Nanostructured Materials (PNM): Intrinsic Basic Physics, 20910.4 Experimental Techniques With Peptide Nanotubes (PNTs), 20910.4.1 PNT Vapor Deposition Method, 20910.4.2 PNT Patterning, 21110.5 Quantum Confinement in PNM Structures, 21210.5.1 Quantum Dot Structure in Peptide Nanotubes and Spheres, 21210.5.2 Structurally Induced Quantum Dot–to–Quantum Well Transition in Peptide Hydrogels, 21910.5.3 Quantum Well Structure in Vapor-Deposited Peptide Nanofibers, 22110.5.4 Thermally Induced Phase Transition in Peptide Quantum Structures, 22510.5.5 Quantum Confinement in Amyloid Proteins, 22910.6 Conclusions, 231Acknowledgment, 233References, 23311 One-Dimensional Nanostructures for Energy Harvesting 237Zhiyong Fan, Johnny C. Ho, and Baoling Huang11.1 Introduction, 23711.2 Growth and Fabrication of 1D Nanomaterials, 23711.2.1 Generic Vapor-Phase Growth, 23711.2.2 Direct Assembly of 1D Nanomaterials with Template-Based Growth, 23811.3 1D Nanomaterials for Solar Energy Harvesting, 24011.3.1 Fundamentals of Nanowire Photovoltaic Devices, 24011.3.2 Performance Limiting Factors of Nanowire Solar Cells, 24111.3.3 Investigation of Nanowire Array Properties, 24211.3.4 Photovoltaic Devices Based on 1D Nanomaterial Arrays, 24411.4 1D Nanomaterials for Piezoelectric Energy Conversion, 24711.4.1 Piezoelectric Properties of ZnO Nanowires, 24811.4.2 ZnO Nanowire Array Nanogenerators, 24911.5 1D Nanomaterials for Thermoelectric Energy Conversion, 25311.5.1 Thermoelectric Transport Properties, 25411.5.2 Enhancement of ZT : From Bulk to Nanoscale, 25611.5.3 Thermoelectric Nanowires, 25711.5.4 Characterization of Thermoelectric Behavior of Nanowires, 26111.6 Summary and Outlook, 263Acknowledgment, 264References, 26412 p –n Junction Silicon Nanowire Arrays For Photovoltaic Applications 271Jun Luo and Jing Zhu12.1 Introduction, 27112.2 Fabrication Of p − n Junction Silicon Nanowire Arrays, 27112.2.1 Top–Down Approach, 27112.2.2 Bottom–UP Approach, 27312.3 Characterization of p − n Junctions in Silicon Nanowire Arrays, 27412.4 Photovoltaic Application of p − n Junction Silicon Nanowire Arrays, 27712.4.1 Photovoltaic Devices Based on Axial Junction Nanowire Arrays, 27712.4.2 Photovoltaic Devices Based on Radial Junction Nanowire Arrays, 28212.4.3 Photovoltaic Devices Based on Individual Junction Nanowires, 28512.5 Conclusion and Outlook, 288Acknowledgment, 291References, 29213 One-Dimensional Nanostructured Metal Oxides for Lithium Ion Batteries 295Huiqiao Li, De Li, and Haoshen Zhou13.1 Introduction, 29513.2 Operating Principles of Lithium Ion Batteries, 29513.3 Advantages of Nanomaterials for Lithium Batteries, 29613.4 Cathode Materials of 1D Nanostructure, 29713.4.1 Background, 29713.4.2 Vanadium-Based Oxides, 29813.4.3 Manganese-Based Oxides, 30313.5 Anode Materials of 1D Nanostructure, 30713.5.1 Background, 30713.5.2 Titanium Oxides Based on Intercalation Reaction, 30713.5.3 Metal Oxides Based on Conventional Reaction, 31113.5.4 Tin- or Silicon-Based Materials, 31313.6 Challenges and Perspectives of Nanomaterials, 31513.7 Conclusion, 316References, 31714 Carbon Nanotube (CNT)-Based High-Performance Electronic and Optoelectronic Devices 321Lian-Mao Peng, Zhiyong Zhang, Sheng Wang, and Yan Li14.1 Introduction, 32114.2 Controlled Growth Of Single-Walled CNT (SWCNT) Arrays on Substrates, 32214.2.1 Catalysts for Growth of SWCNT Arrays, 32214.2.2 Orientation Control of SWCNTs, 32314.2.3 Position, Density, and Diameter Control of SWCNTs, 32314.2.4 Bandgap and Property Control of SWCNTs, 32314.3 Doping-Free Fabrication and Performance of CNT FETs, 32414.3.1 High-Performance n- and p-Type CNT FETs, 32514.3.2 Integration of High-κ Materials with CNT FETs, 32614.3.3 Comparisons between Si- and CNT-Based FETs, 32714.3.4 Temperature Performance of CNT FETs, 32914.4 CNT-Based Optoelectronic Devices, 33114.4.1 CNT-Based p–n Junction and Diode Characteristics, 33114.4.2 CNT Photodetectors, 33114.4.3 CNT Light Emitting Diodes, 33314.5 Outlook, 335Acknowledgment, 336References, 33615 Properties and Devices of Single One-Dimensional Nanostructure: Application of Scanning Probe Microscopy 339Wei-Guang Xie, Jian-Bin Xu, and Jin An15.1 Introduction, 33915.2 Atomic Structures and Density of States, 34015.2.1 Carbon Nanotubes, 34015.2.2 Defects, 34215.2.3 One-Dimensional Nanostructure of Silicon, 34315.2.4 Other One-Dimensional Nanostructures, 34415.2.5 Atomic Structure of Carbon Nanotubes by Atomic Force Microscopy, 34415.3 In situ Device Characterization, 34515.4 Substrate Effects, 35015.5 Surface Effects, 35115.6 Doping, 35315.7 Summary, 356Acknowledgments, 356References, 35616 More Recent Advances in One-Dimensional Metal Oxide Nanostructures: Optical and Optoelectronic Applications 359Lei Liao and Xiangfeng Duan16.1 Introduction, 35916.2 Synthesis and Physical Properties of 1D Metal Oxide, 35916.2.1 Top–Down Method, 36016.2.2 Bottom–Up Approach, 36016.2.3 Physical Properties of 1D Metal Oxide Nanostructures, 36016.3 More Recent Advances in Device Application Based on 1D Metal Oxide Nanostructures, 36016.3.1 Waveguides, 36116.3.2 LEDs, 36316.3.3 Lasing, 36716.3.4 Solar Cells, 37116.3.5 Photodetectors, 37316.4 Challenges and Perspectives, 374Acknowledgments, 375References, 37517 Organic One-Dimensional Nanostructures: Construction and Optoelectronic Properties 381Yong Sheng Zhao and Jiannian Yao17.1 Introduction, 38117.2 Construction Strategies, 38217.2.1 Self-Assembly in Liquid Phase, 38217.2.2 Template-Induced Growth, 38217.2.3 Synthesis of Organic 1D Nanocomposites in Liquid Phase, 38317.2.4 Morphology Control with Molecular Design, 38417.2.5 Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD), 38617.3 Optoelectronic Properties, 38717.3.1 Multicolor Emission, 38717.3.2 Electroluminescence and Field Emission, 38717.3.3 Optical Waveguides, 38817.3.4 Lasing, 38917.3.5 Tunable Emission from Binary Organic Nanowires, 39017.3.6 Waveguide Modulation, 39117.3.7 Chemical Vapor Sensors, 39217.4 Conclusion and Perspectives, 393Acknowledgment, 393References, 39418 Controllable Growth and Assembly of One-Dimensional Structures of Organic Functional Materials for Optoelectronic Applications 397Lang Jiang, Huanli Dong, and Wenping Hu18.1 Introduction, 39718.2 Synthetic Methods for Producing 1D Organic Nanostructures, 39818.2.1 Vapor Methods, 39818.2.2 Solution Methods, 39918.3 Controllable Growth and Assembly of 1D Ordered Nanostructures, 40018.3.1 Template/Mold-Assisted Methods, 40018.3.2 Substrate-Induced Methods, 40018.3.3 External-Force-Assisted Growth, 40018.4 Optoelectronic Applications of 1D Nanostructures, 40518.4.1 Organic Photovoltaic Cells, 40518.4.2 Organic Field-Effect Transistors, 40618.4.3 Photoswitches and Phototransistors, 40818.5 Conclusion and Outlook, 408Acknowledgments, 410References, 41019 Type II Antimonide-Based Superlattices: A One-Dimensional Bulk Semiconductor 415Manijeh Razeghi and Binh-Minh Nguyen19.1 Introduction, 41519.2 Material System and Variants of Type II Superlattices, 41519.2.1 The 6.1 Angstrom Family, 41519.2.2 Type II InAs/GaSb Superlattices, 41619.2.3 Variants of Sb-Based Superlattices, 41619.3 One-Dimensional Physics of Type II Superlattices, 41819.3.1 Qualitative Description of Type II Superlattices, 41819.3.2 Numerical Calculation of Type II Superlattice Band Structure, 42119.3.3 Band Structure Result, 42419.3.4 M Structure Superlattices, 42719.4 Type II Superlattices for Infrared Detection and Imaging, 42819.4.1 Theoretical Modeling and Device Architecture Optimization, 42819.4.2 Material Growth and Structural Characterization, 42819.4.3 Device Fabrication, 42919.4.4 Integrated Measurement System, 42919.4.5 Focal Plane Arrays and Infrared Imaging, 43019.5 Summary, 432Acknowledgments, 432References, 43320 Quasi One-Dimensional Metal Oxide Nanostructures for Gas Sensors 435Andrea Ponzoni, Guido Faglia, and Giorgio Sberveglieri20.1 Introduction, 43520.2 Working Principle, 43520.2.1 Electrical Conduction in Metal Oxides, 43520.2.2 Adsorption/Desorption Phenomena, 43620.2.3 Transduction Mechanism, 43620.2.4 Sensor Response Parameters, 43820.3 Bundled Nanowire Devices, 43820.3.1 Integration of Nanowires into Functional Devices, 43820.3.2 Conductometric Gas Sensors, 43920.4 Single-Nanowire Devices, 44220.4.1 Integration of Nanowires into Functional Devices, 44220.4.2 Role of Electrical Contacts, 44220.4.3 Conductometric Gas Sensors, 44320.4.4 Field-Effect Transistor (FET) Devices Based on Single Nanowires, 44520.5 Electronic Nose, 44520.5.1 Chemical Sensitization, 44620.5.2 Gradient Array (KAMINA Platform), 44620.5.3 Mixed Arrays, 44720.6 Optical Gas Sensors, 44720.6.1 Experimental Observations, 44820.6.2 Working Mechanism, 44820.7 Conclusions, 450Acknowledgments, 450References, 45021 One-Dimensional Nanostructures in Plasmonics 455Xuefeng Gu, Teng Qiu, and Paul K. Chu21.1 Introduction, 45521.2 1D plasmonic Waveguides, 45621.2.1 Tradeoff between Light Confinement and Propagation Length, 45621.2.2 Surface Plasmon Polariton (SPP) Propagation along Nanoparticle Chains, 45621.2.3 SPP Propagation along Nanowires, 45721.2.4 Hybrid Waveguiding Nanostructures, 45721.2.5 Enhanced SPP Coupling between Nanowires and External Devices, 45721.3 1D Nanostructures in Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering, 45921.3.1 Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering, 45921.3.2 Nanowires in Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering, 46021.3.3 Nanorods in Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering, 46121.3.4 Nanotubes in Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering, 46221.4 Plasmonic 1D Nanostructures in Photovoltaics, 46421.4.1 Solar Cells with 1D Nanostructures as Building Elements, 46521.4.2 Plasmonic 1D Nanostructures for Improved Photovoltaics, 46621.5 Conclusion And Outlook, 467Acknowledgments, 469References, 46922 Lateral Metallic Nanostructures for Spintronics 473Marius V. Costache, Bart J. van Wees, and Sergio O. Valenzuela22.1 Introduction, 47322.2 Introduction to Spin Transport in 1D Systems, 47422.3 Fabrication Techniques For Lateral Spin Devices, 47622.3.1 Electron Beam Lithography, 47622.3.2 Multistep Process Using Ion Milling for Clean Interfaces, 47622.3.3 Shadow Evaporation Technique for Tunnel Barriers, 47622.4 Examples of Devices Fabricated Using The Shadow Evaporation Technique, 478Acknowledgments, 481References, 48123 One-Dimensional Inorganic Nanostructures for Field Emitters 483Tianyou Zhai, Xi Wang, Liang Li, Yoshio Bando, and Dmitri Golberg23.1 Introduction, 48323.2 Key Factors Affecting Field Emission (FE) Performance of 1D Nanostructures, 48423.2.1 Morphology Effects, 48423.2.2 Phase Structure Effects, 49023.2.3 Temperature Effects, 49023.2.4 Light Illumination Effects, 49123.2.5 Gas Exposure Effects, 49223.2.6 Substrate Effects, 49223.2.7 Gap Effects, 49323.2.8 Composition Effects, 49323.2.9 Hetero/branched Structure Effects, 49623.3 Conclusion and Outlook, 497Acknowledgment, 499References, 49924 One-Dimensional Field-Effect Transistors 503Joachim Knoch24.1 Introduction, 50324.2 An Introduction to Field-Effect Transistors, 50324.2.1 Fundamental Properties of Field-Effect Transistors, 50324.2.2 One-Dimensional Geometry of Nanowires and Nanotubes, 50524.2.3 Density of States or Quantum Capacitance, 50624.3 One-Dimensional FETs, 50824.3.1 Impact of Dimensionality and Dependence on Effective Mass: 1D versus 2D, 50824.3.2 Scaling to Quantum Capacitance Limit: Intrinsic Device Performance, 50824.3.3 Extrinsic Device Performance, 51024.4 Conclusion and Outlook, 512References, 51225 Nanowire Field-Effect Transistors for Electrical Interfacing with Cells and Tissue 515Bozhi Tian25.1 Introduction, 51525.1.1 How Nanowire (NW) Sensors Work, 51525.1.2 Nanoscale Morphology for Cellular Interfacing, 51625.2 Discussion, 51625.2.1 Device Fabrication and Basic Characteristics, 51625.2.2 Advantages of NWFET Sensing and Recording Systems, 51725.2.3 Extracellular Interfaces of NWFET and Tissue/Cells, 51825.2.4 Intracellular Interfaces of NWFET and Cells, 52425.3 Conclusion and Outlook, 526Acknowledgment, 528References, 528Author Biographies 531Index 551

“The book will be valuable to researchers, academicians, and students of chemistry, physics, materials science, and engineering, and will help chemical engineers advance their own investigations into the next generation of applications.”  (Chemical Engineering Progress, 1 September 2013)“It should also help readers to pursue their own investigations to develop the next generation of applications in this exciting and relatively new field.”  (Chemistry & Industry, 1 June 2013)