Nanotechnologies

Pierre Camille Lacaze is Emeritus Professor at Paris Diderot University, France. He has published 230 articles in international journals, and has filed six patents.

• Preface xiAcknowledgments xvPART 1. CONCEPTS, DISCOVERIES AND THE RAPID DEVELOPMENT OF NANOTECHNOLOGIES1Chapter 1. Nanotechnologies in Context: Social and Scientific Awareness of their Impact 31.1. Feynman, the visionary 31.2. Nanotechnologies and their definition 51.3. The consideration of nanotechnologies by scientific organizations 81.4. Bibliography 11Chapter 2. The Rapid Expansion of Nanotechnology: New Ways of Observing the Infinitesimal and the Discovery of Carbonaceous Nanomaterials with Unusual Properties 132.1. Improving tools for observing the infinitesimal 152.1.1. Transmission electron microscopes 152.1.2. Scanning electron microscopes 182.1.3. Near-field microscopes 212.1.3.1. The tunnel-effect microscope (STM or scanning tunneling microscopy) 222.1.3.2. Atomic force microscopy 262.2. The discovery of new carbonaceous nanomaterials 282.2.1. Some basic concepts relative to the electronic structure of carbon and to the bonding rules between carbon atoms 292.2.1.1. The enigma of carbon atoms 292.2.1.2. Diamond or the perfect and unique tetrahedral chain of carbon atoms 312.2.1.3. Graphite or the intrusion of π electrons in the assembly of carbon atoms 322.2.2. The fullerenes or graphite sheets rolled into a ball 342.2.3. Carbon nanotubes: tubes of graphite sheets 362.2.4. Graphene or graphite “sheets”392.2.4.1. The identification of graphene 392.2.4.2. Some remarkable electrical properties 412.2.4.3. Remarkable progress: solid, flexible and easily manipulated graphene paper 432.2.5. Link between conjugated carbonaceous nanomaterials 452.3. Conclusions 462.4. Bibliography 46Chapter 3. Nanomaterials in All Their Forms: New Properties Due to the Confinement of Matter 493.1. The different types of nano-objects: main methods of preparation 503.1.1. Colloidal solutions of gold NPs 503.1.2. Hybrid and magnetic NPs (ferromagnetic fluids) 523.1.3. Semiconducting NPs (quantum dots) 543.1.4. Phospholipid vesicles and encapsulation by liposomes 583.1.5. Nanowires 603.2. Organizing nanoparticles into arrays 633.2.1. Self-assembly 643.2.1.1. Molecular self-assembly and the formation of nanometric networks 653.2.1.2. Self-assembly of NPs on solid surfaces 703.2.2. Assembling by ultrathin alumina membranes 743.2.3. Assembling by colloidal lithography 753.3. Conclusions 783.4. Bibliography 78Chapter 4. Some Amazing Properties of Nanomaterials and of Their Assembly into Networks 814.1. The first effect of the confinement of matter: unusual catalytic and physicochemical properties 814.2. The optoelectronic properties of NPs due to confinement 824.2.1. Some concepts of physics that can be applied to solid materials 834.2.2. The plasmon resonance effect and the optical properties of gold NPs 854.2.3. Surface enhanced Raman scattering 874.2.4. The photothermic effect or how to heat up gold NPs 894.2.5. The optoelectronic properties of Quantum Dots 894.3. The amazing properties of NP networks or nanostructured surfaces 914.3.1. Wettability of structured surfaces 914.3.2. Optical properties 944.3.2.1. Photonic crystals 974.3.2.2. Waveguides 984.3.2.3. Qdot LASER diodes 1004.3.2.4. Antireflective surfaces 1054.3.2.5. Plasmonic crystals and the SERS effect 1064.3.3. Nanoelectronics applied to the detection of trace elements: nanowire transistors 1094.3.3.1. The operating principle of the FET sensor 1104.3.3.2. An example of how it could be applied: detecting explosives 1104.3.3.3. Electronic noses 1134.4. Conclusions and perspectives 1134.5. Bibliography 114PART 2. APPLICATIONS AND SOCIETAL IMPLICATIONS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 117Chapter 5. Nanoelectronics of the 21st Century 1195.1. Some history 1195.2. Molecular electronics 1235.2.1. Single Electronics. Dream or reality? 1245.2.1.1. Electron box and electron transfer by quantum tunneling 1245.2.1.2. The single-electron transistor (SET) 1275.2.2. The ultimate step: the molecule 1305.2.2.1. Technical issues in the assembly of a metal/single molecule/metal junction 1305.2.2.2. Molecular diodes made from self-assembled organic molecules 1325.2.2.3. Electrical properties of self-assembled organic layers 1335.2.2.4. The organic field-effect transistor 1355.2.3. Conclusion 1375.3. Spintronics 1375.3.1. Electron spin and ferromagnetic materials 1385.3.2. Magnetoresistance 1395.3.3. Giant magnetoresistance 1405.4. Conclusions 1435.5. Bibliography 144Chapter 6. Energy and Nanomaterials 1476.1. Electrochemical storage of electricity 1486.1.1. Electrical properties of an accumulator 1506.1.2. Lithium batteries 1516.1.2.1. The functional originality of a Li-ion electrochemical cell 1546.1.2.2. Nanotechnology to the rescue: the grapheme solution? 1566.1.3. Electrochemical capacitors and supercapacitors 1576.1.3.1. Peculiarities of the electrochemical capacitor 1586.1.3.2. The developments and the state of the art 1616.1.4. Conclusions 1646.2. The conversion of solar energy into electrical energy 1656.2.1. The principle of the conversion 1666.2.1.1. The photoelectric effect and its history 1666.2.1.2. Photoionization of a semiconductor and collection of the charges at the electrodes 1686.2.2. The inorganic route based on mineral semiconductors 1706.2.3. The organic route 1726.2.3.1. Organic photovoltaic cells 1726.2.3.2. Grätzel dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC) 1766.3. Fuel cells 1796.3.1. Functional principles of PEMFCs 1816.3.2. Can the cost of dihydrogen fuel cells be reduced? 1836.4. General conclusions 1886.5. Bibliography 189Chapter 7. Nanobiology and Nanomedicine 1937.1. Introduction 1937.2. Bionanoelectronics 1947.2.1. The multiplexed detection of PSA using “transistorized” nanowires 1957.2.1.1. Immunological assay of proteins by labeling 1957.2.1.2. Use of nanowire networks 1977.2.1.3. The simplified and ultrasensitive detection of PSA 1977.2.1.4. Conclusions 2017.2.2. Connecting the organic and the artificial 2017.2.2.1. The construction of a nanosensor and its function 2027.2.2.2. Proton exchanges and their inhibition by calcium ions 2047.2.2.3. Conclusions 2057.3. Nanomedicine 2057.3.1. Biological barriers and the alteration of the cellular tissue surrounding a tumor 2067.3.1.1. The extravasation of nanoparticles toward cancerous tissue 2087.3.2. Nanoprobes for in vivo real-time imaging 2107.3.2.1. Imagery resulting from plasmon resonance of gold NPs and from their interaction with enzymes characteristic of a pathological process 2107.3.2.2. Luminescence imaging triggered by enzymes or reactive oxygen species characteristic of a pathology 2137.3.2.3. Magnetic resonance imaging coupled with nanophototherapy 2157.3.2.4. An innovative strategy for an improved penetration of the NPs in the cancerous cell tissue 2187.3.3. Challenges of nanomedicine and some significant clinical results 2217.3.3.1. The first commercial nanomedication 2217.3.3.2. New paths in development 2237.3.4. Problems related to the toxicity of nanomaterials 2287.3.4.1. A few general considerations 2287.3.4.2. The multiple causes of nanomaterial-induced toxicity 2317.3.4.3. Recommendations for a better evaluation of NP toxicity 2327.4. Conclusions and perspectives 2347.5. Bibliography 235Chapter 8. Nanorobotics and Nanomachines of the Future 2398.1. Natural molecular machines 2408.1.1. ATP-synthase 2408.1.2. Myosin: a linear protein nanomotor 2428.2. Artificial molecular machines 2438.2.1. Artificial molecular machines in solution 2448.2.1.1. Rotaxanes (translational molecular shuttles) 2458.2.1.2. Catenanes 2498.2.1.3. Promising applications for diagnosis and therapy 2518.2.2. Nanomachines with mechanical properties 2538.2.2.1. Rotors and gyroscopes 2548.2.2.2. “Motorized” molecular vehicles 2568.3. Conclusions 2588.4. Bibliography 259Conclusions and Outlook 263Index of Names 267Index 269