Nanostructured Materials for Energy Applications

Abdullah M. Al‑Enizi obtained his Ph.D. in 2013 jointly from King Saud University (KSA) and the University of Texas at Austin (USA), and then joined the Department of Chemistry at King Saud University as an Assistant Professor. His research interests include polymeric materials, porous nanomaterials, catalysis, and electrochemistry. He has authored more than 200 publications of high impact and holds 3 US patents. Dr. Enizi’s Scopus citation count is 5799, and he is a leading researcher in Advanced Polymers and Hybrid Nanomaterials. He is also a life member of several international scientific societies.Mohd Ubaidullah works as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Chemistry, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. He obtained his Ph.D. and worked at the Department of Chemistry, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India. Dr. Ubaidullah has published more than 90 research papers in journals of international repute. His research mainly focuses on energy, water treatment, catalysis, optoelectronics, and sensors.Mohd Shkir is an Associate Professor at the Department of Physics, King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia. He has published over 650 research papers of high‑impact international and national journals with over 13900 citations, h‑index‑54, i10‑index 395 and published four US patents [US‑20230221273‑A1, US‑20230212403‑A1, US‑20230356162‑A1, US‑20230357047‑A1] and one EU patent [ES2527976 (A1)―2015‑02‑02]. One new patent has been filed to United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO). He is leading a research group “Investigation on Novel Class of Materials (INCM) at KKU.” He was born in Madhoupur, Pilibhit, UP, India in 1982. His scientific interest focuses on optics, nanotechnology, and thin‑film fabrications for optoelectronic device applications, which combine experimental and theoretical techniques. He is also working on the development of materials for energy applications, fabrication of new systems and devices for future applications, and the determination of various electro‑optical properties using computational techniques. He is currently working on nanosynthesis and thin‑film fabrication of different kinds of materials for biomedical, optoelectronic, and radiation detection, supercapacitors, photodetectors, and gas sensors applications.Abhay Kumar Singh works as a Professor in the Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment Dean’s Office, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa. He has taught undergraduate courses and conducted research at Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidyapith, Varanasi, India, and both undergraduate and postgraduate levels at Lovely Professional University, India. He worked as a Brain Korea 21 Postdoctoral Fellow in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Department of Physics (jointly) at Incheon National University, South Korea. He was also a Dr. D.S. Kothari Postdoctoral Fellow in the Department of Physics at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. His current research interests include chalcogenide photovoltaic solar cells, chalcogen‑nanocomposites, chalcogenide metallic/non‑metallic multicomponent alloys, TMD materials, and thermal, optical, and electrical characterizations. He successfully introduced two new series of chalcogenide glasses, Se‑Zn‑In and Se‑Zn‑Te‑In, in 2009 and 2010, respectively, as well as SZSMWCNT and SZS‑GF in 2012. His experimental findings have been demonstrated in more than 42 technical research publications in reputed international journals, along with two international book chapters and Two books.

• ContentsForeword xvPreface xviiEditor Biographies xxiiiContributor List xxvChapter 1 Introduction to nanostructured energy materials and their applicability 1Abhay Kumar Singh1.1 Introduction 11.2 Classification of nanomaterials 31.2.1 Zero‑dimensional materials 31.2.2 One‑dimensional materials 41.2.3 Two‑dimensional materials 51.2.4 Three‑dimensional materials 61.2.5 Nanostructures 71.2.6 Nanoparticles 81.2.7 Nanowires and nanotubes 91.2.8 Nanolayers or nanocoatings 91.2.9 Nanoporous materials 91.3 Strategies of nanomaterials synthesis 91.3.1 Chemical approaches 101.3.1.1 Sol–gel method 111.3.1.2 Hydro/solvothermal process 121.3.1.3 Polyol method 131.3.1.4 Sonochemical process 131.3.1.5 Microemulsion process 141.3.1.6 Chemical vapor deposition process 141.3.1.7 Atomic layer deposition (ALD) process 151.4 Physical methods 161.4.1 Mechanical approach 161.4.1.1 Ball milling method 161.4.1.2 Melt mixing approach 161.4.1.3 Inert‑gas technique 171.4.1.4 Pulse vapor deposition method 171.4.1.5 Pulsed laser deposition method 181.4.1.6 Electron beam vapor deposition method 181.4.1.7 Sputtering deposition method 181.4.1.8 Arc deposition method 191.4.1.9 Laser pyrolysis method 191.4.1.10 Flash spray pyrolysis method 201.5 Energetic applications of the nano materials 201.5.1 Photovoltaic solar cells 201.5.1.1 Silicon and thin‑film solar cells 211.5.1.2 Multijunction solar cells 221.5.1.3 Organic solar cells 231.5.1.4 Dye‑sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) 231.5.1.5 Quantum dots‑sensitized solar cells(QDSSCs) 251.5.2 Carbon nanotubes for optoelectronics 271.5.3 Graphene for optoelectronics 301.5.4 Transition‑metal dichalcogenides 311.6 Conclusions 33References 33Chapter 2 Photovoltaic energy material nano‑structuration and functionalization 45Mohanraj Kumar, Sandhiya Murugan,S. Selvaraj, Mohd Shkir and Jih‑Hsing Chang2.1 Introduction 452.2 Photovoltaic energy basics 462.2.1 How photovoltaic cells work 462.2.2 Types of photovoltaic cells 472.2.3 Efficiency and challenges 472.3 Nano‑structuration in photovoltaic materials 482.3.1 Principles of nano‑structuration 482.3.2 Benefits of nano‑structuration 492.3.3 Nano‑structured materials for photovoltaics 492.3.4 Techniques for nano‑structuration 492.4 Functionalization of photovoltaic materials 502.4.1 Introduction to functionalization 502.4.2 Purpose and advantages of functionalization 502.4.3 Types of functionalization in photovoltaics 502.4.4 Methods for functionalization 512.5 Types of nano‑structuration and functionalization 522.5.1 Surface nano‑structuration 522.5.1.1 Surface texturing 522.5.1.2 Nanoparticle deposition 522.5.2 Bulk nano‑structuration 532.5.2.1 Quantum dots 532.5.2.2 Nanowires 532.5.3 Chemical functionalization 542.5.3.1 Passivation layers 542.5.3.2 Dye sensitization 542.6 Methods for nano‑structuration and functionalization 542.6.1 Physical methods 542.6.1.1 Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) 552.6.2 Chemical methods 562.6.2.1 Sol‑gel process 562.6.2.2 Chemical bath deposition (CBD) 562.6.3 Hybrid methods 562.6.3.1 Electrochemical deposition 572.6.3.2 Atomic layer deposition (ALD) 572.7 Applications and case studies 572.7.1 Nano‑structured photovoltaic materialsin solar cells 572.7.2 Functionalized photovoltaic materials forenhanced performance 572.7.3 Success stories and research developments 572.8 Challenges and future directions 582.8.1 Challenges in nano‑structuration andfunctionalization 582.8.2 Future trends and innovations 582.8.3 Sustainability and environmental considerations 582.9 Conclusion 58References 59Chapter 3 Zero‑dimensional (0D) nanomaterials and their energy applications 62Abhay Kumar Singh3.1 Overview 623.2 Nanomaterial unique features 633.2.1 Surface area 643.2.2 Quantum effects 643.2.3 Thermal and electrical conductivity 643.2.4 Magnetism 643.2.5 Mechanical properties 653.2.6 Catalytic support 653.2.7 Antimicrobial activity 653.3 Types of low‑dimensional nanomaterials 653.4 Zero‑dimensional (0D) nanomaterials 653.5 Zero‑dimensional nanomaterials in biosensing 663.5.1 0D Nanoparticles 673.5.2 0D QDs nanostructures 683.5.3 0D Fullerene 693.5.4 0D Nanospike 713.5.5 Carbon quantum dots (CQDs) 723.5.6 Graphene quantum dots (GQDs) 783.5.7 Inorganic quantum dots (IQDs) 803.5.8 Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) 843.6 Zero‑dimensional nanomaterials in photovoltaic 863.6.1 Significant features of photovoltaic cell construction 873.6.2 Zero‑dimensional perovskites 883.6.2.1 Zero‑dimensional halide perovskite structure 903.6.2.2 Zero‑dimensional halide perovskites crystal growth 913.6.3 Zero‑dimensional halide perovskites applications 913.6.3.1 Optoelectronics 913.6.3.2 Light‑emitting diodes 933.6.3.3 Photodetectors 943.6.3.4 Solar cells 953.6.3.5 Laser 973.7 Conclusions 98References 98Chapter 4 1D nanomaterials and their energy applications 111Ziaul Raza Khan and Mohd Shkir4.1 Introduction 1114.2 1D nanomaterials 1124.3 Development of 1D nanomaterials 1124.3.1 Chemical vapor deposition 1124.3.2 Chemical vapor transport 1124.3.3 Metal organic chemical vapor deposition 1134.3.4 Hydrothermal 1134.3.5 Electrospinning 1134.3.6 Template‑assisted synthesis 1154.4 1D nanomaterials physical properties 1154.4.1 Optical properties 1154.4.2 Electrical properties 1164.5 Applications of 1D nanomaterials for green energy harvesting 1164.6 Conclusions and future prospects 119References 119Chapter 5 Two‑dimensional nanomaterials and their energy applications 123Abhay Kumar Singh5.1 Introduction 1235.2 Classification of 2D materials 1265.2.1 2D metal nanomaterials 1275.2.2 Layered hydroxides 1285.2.3 Metal‑organic framework 1305.2.4 Xenes 1325.2.5 Covalent organic framework 1355.3 2D materials energetic applications 1375.4 2D materials for photovoltaic application 1385.4.1 2D perovskite solar cells (PSCs): a brief outline 1395.4.2 Monoelemental 2D materials for PSCs 1405.4.3 Transparent conductive electrode (TCE) 1425.4.4 Electron transporting layer (ETL) 1425.4.5 Perovskite layer (PL) 1435.4.6 HTL 1475.4.7 Conductive back electrode 1485.5 Dye‑sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) 1515.5.1 2D‑NL‑based DSSCs 1525.5.2 Graphene‑based DSSCs 1535.5.3 TiO2‑based DSSCs 1535.5.4 MXene‑based DSSCs 1555.5.5 Black phosphorus (BP)‑based DSSCs 1555.5.6 Chalcogen 2D‑NL‑based DSSCs 1575.6 Conclusions 158References 159Chapter 6 3D Nanomaterials and their energy applications 175Valparai Surangani Manikandan,Arun Thirumurugan,Krishnamoorthy Shanmugaraj,Dhandayuthapani Thiyagarajan,Ranjith Kumar Poobalan,Natarajan Chidhambaram,Nagarajan Dineshbabu,Kalpana Kalyanasundaram, andDhanabalan Shanmuga Sundar6.1 Introduction 1756.2 Preparation of 3D nanomaterials 1796.3 3D Nanomaterials for energy storage 1886.3.1 3D nanomaterials for supercapacitors 1886.3.2 3D Nanomaterials for batteries 1966.3.3 3D nanomaterials for energy conversionelectrocatalytic water splitting (HER, OER) 2046.4 Conclusion 211Acknowledgments 212References 212Chapter 7 Advanced nanostructured thin films of organic materials for photovoltaic solar cells applications 216M. Aslam Manthrammel and Mohd Shkir7.1 Introduction 2167.1.1 Classification of solar cells 2167.1.2 Next‑generation (third‑generation) solar cells 2167.1.3 Dye‑sensitized and quantum dot‑sensitized solar cells (DSSCs and QDSSCs) 2177.1.4 Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) 2197.2 Organic solar cells (OSCs) 2207.2.1 Working principle of OSCs 2207.2.2 Materials 2217.2.3 Device architectures 2217.2.3.1 Bilayer OSC fabrication or planar heterojunction architecture 2217.2.3.2 Bulk heterojunction (BHJ) configuration 2227.2.3.3 Inverted geometry 2237.2.4 Working mechanism 2247.2.4.1 Photon absorption 2247.2.4.2 The exciton diffusion 2257.2.4.3 Charge dissociation and transportation 2267.3 Solar cell characteristics 2267.4 Recent advancements in the OSCs 2277.4.1 Efficiency improvements 2277.4.2 Stability enhancements 2287.4.3 Tandem (multi‑junction) designs 2287.4.4 Non‑fullerene acceptors 2287.4.5 Scalable manufacturing 2287.5 Summary 228References 229Chapter 8 Advances of nanostructured thin films for their applications in solar cells 231Arun Kumar Senthilkumar, Mohanraj Kumar,Jih‑Hsing Chang, Sandhiya Murugan, Mohd Taukeer Khanand Mohd Shkir8.1 Introduction 2318.1.1 Motivation and objectives 2318.1.2 Overview of the chapter 2328.2 Solar cells 2328.2.1 Working principal of a solar cells 2338.2.2 Electrical characteristic parameter of a solar cells 2348.2.2.1 Short‑circuit current (JSC) 2348.2.2.2 Open‐circuit voltage (VOC) 2358.2.2.3 Fill factor (FF) 2358.2.2.4 Power conversion efficiency (ɳ) 2368.3 Nanostructured thin films: concept, classification, and fabrication methods 2368.3.1 Concept and classification of nanostructured thin films 2368.3.2 Fabrication methods of nanostructured thin films 2378.3.2.1 Mechanical milling 2378.3.2.2. Vapor deposition 2378.3.2.3 Laser ablation and electron beam lithography 2388.3.2.4 Spray pyrolysis 2388.3.2.5 Co‑precipitation and hydrothermal method 2388.3.2.6 Sol–gel method 2398.3.2.7 Inkjet printing 2398.3.2.8 Spin coating process 2398.4 Properties and performance of nanostructured thin‑film solar cells 2408.4.1 Optical properties 2408.4.2 Electrical properties 2408.4.3 Thermal properties 2418.4.4 Mechanical properties 2418.4.5 Structural and morphological properties 2428.5 Applications of nanostructured thin films in solar cells 2428.5.1 Nanostructured thin films for crystalline silicon solar cells 2438.5.2 Nanostructured thin films for thin‑film solar cells 2448.5.2.1 Amorphous silicon solar cells 2448.5.2.2 Cadmium telluride solar cells 2468.5.2.3 Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells 2478.5.2.4 Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) 2488.5.2.5 Organic solar cells 2498.5.2.6 Dye‑Sensitized solar cells 2518.5.2.7 Quantum dot solar cells (QDSCs) 2528.6 Conclusion 253References 254Chapter 9 Organic–inorganic materials‑based advanced nanostructured thin films for photovoltaic solar cell applications 262Ashwani Kumar and Mohd Shkir9.1 Introduction 2629.2 Heterojunction thin‑film solar cells 2649.3 CDTE thin‑film solar cells 265xiv Contents9.4 CIGS thin‑film solar cells 2679.5 Perovskite solar cells 2689.6 Operational principle of hybrid perovskite 2699.7 Architectures of perovskite solar cells 2709.8 The compact metal oxide blocking layer 2709.9 Electron transport layer 2719.10 Absorbing perovskite layer 2729.11 The hole transport layer 2729.12 The electrode contacts 2739.13 Tandem solar cells 2739.14 Perovskite‑silicon tandem solar cells 2749.15 Tandem silicon solar cells with cigs crystal 2769.16 Quantum dot tandem solar cells 2779.17 Organic‑inorganic hybrid tandem solar cells 2779.18 Conclusion 279References 279Chapter 10 Quantum dots/nanoparticles for solar energy applications 283Ashwani Kumar, Ziaul Raza Khan,Mohd Shkir and Thamrah Alshahrani10.1 Introduction 28310.2 Working mechanisms of solar cell 28410.3 Different generation’s solar cells 28410.4 Lead‑based quantum dots 28710.5 Lead halide perovskite quantum dots 29010.6 Fabrication techniques of perovskite solar cells 29510.7 Cadmium‑based quantum dots solar cells 29710.8 Conclusion 301References 301Chapter 11 Challenges and future prospects 310Mohanraj Kumar, Mohd Shkir and Abhay Kumar SinghAcknowledgments 312References 312Index 313