Nanobiosensors

Aiguo Wu, Cixi Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering (NIMTE), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) Waheed S. Khan, National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering (NIBGE), Faisalabad, Pakistan.

• 1 Basics of Biosensors and Nanobiosensors 1Pravin Bhattarai and Sadaf Hameed1.1 Introduction 11.2 Biosensor and Its Working Principle 31.3 Characteristics of a Biosensor 41.3.1 Selectivity 41.3.2 Reproducibility 41.3.3 Stability 51.3.4 Sensitivity and Linearity 51.4 Biosensor Evolution: A Brief Outlook 61.5 Types of Biosensors 61.5.1 Electrochemical Biosensors (ECBs) 61.5.1.1 Potentiometric Biosensors 81.5.1.2 Voltammetric/Amperometric 81.5.1.3 Impedance (Electrical Impedance Spectroscopy, EIS) 81.5.1.4 Conductometric 91.5.2 Optical Biosensors 91.5.2.1 Surface Plasmon Resonance 101.5.2.2 Evanescent Wave Fluorescence Biosensors 101.5.3 Piezoelectric Biosensors 111.5.4 Electronic Biosensors: Based on Field-Effect Transistor 121.6 On the Basis of the Use of Biorecognition Elements: Catalytic Versus Affinity Biosensors 131.6.1 Enzymatic Biosensors 131.6.2 Immunosensors 131.6.3 DNA Aptamer Biosensors 141.6.4 Peptide-Based Biosensors 141.6.5 Whole-Cell Biosensors 141.7 Application of Biosensors 151.7.1 Biosensors in Microbiology 151.7.2 Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring Applications 161.7.3 Biosensors for Cancer Biomarker Identification 161.7.4 Biosensor in the Detection of Infectious Diseases 161.8 Conclusion 17Acknowledgment 17References 172 Transduction Process-Based Classification of Biosensors 23Fang Yang, Yuanyuan Ma, Stefan G. Stanciu, and Aiguo Wu2.1 Introduction 232.2 Electrochemical Biosensors 242.2.1 Potentiometric Biosensors 252.2.2 Impedimetric Biosensors 262.2.3 Conductometric Biosensors 282.3 Optical Biosensors 292.3.1 Biosensors Based on Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) 292.3.2 Raman and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR) 302.3.3 Biosensors Based on Fluorescence Effect 312.4 Mass-Based Biosensors 322.4.1 Piezoelectric Biosensors 322.4.2 Quartz Crystal Microbalance (QCM) 332.4.3 Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) 342.5 Thermal Biosensors 352.5.1 Thermometric Sensors 352.5.2 Terahertz Effect 362.5.3 Thermal Radiation 372.6 Energy Biosensors 382.6.1 Adenosine Triphosphate 392.6.2 Fluorescence Resonance Energy 392.7 Conclusion 40Acknowledgments 40References 403 Novel Nanomaterials for Biosensor Development 45Sadaf Hameed and Pravin Bhattarai3.1 Introduction 453.2 Graphene and Its Composites 463.2.1 Graphene and Their Composite-Based Biosensors 483.2.1.1 Graphene and Their Composite-Based Electrochemical Biosensors 493.2.1.2 Graphene and Their Composite-Based Field-Effect Transistor Biosensors 503.3 Carbon Nanotubes and Their Hybrids 513.3.1 Biosensors Based on Carbon Nanotubes and Their Hybrids 533.4 Nitride-Based Biosensors 573.4.1 Biosensing Application of Nitride-Based Nanomaterials 583.5 Metal and Metal Oxide Nanoparticles for Biosensors 603.5.1 Fundamental Characteristics of Metal and Metal Oxide Nanostructure for the Development of a Biosensor 613.5.2 Performance of Nanostructured Metal and Metal Oxide-Based Biosensors 613.6 Conclusion 64Acknowledgment 64References 644 Biomarkers and Their Role in Detection of Biomolecules 73Ayesha Taj, Abdul Rehman, and Sadia Z. Bajwa4.1 Introduction 734.2 Types of Biomarkers 754.2.1 Predictive Biomarker 754.2.2 Prognosis Biomarker 754.2.3 Pharmacodynamic Biomarker 754.3 Cancer Biomarker 764.3.1 Role of Biomarkers in Cancer Medicine 774.3.2 Use of Biomarkers in Cancer Research 784.3.2.1 Risk Assessment 794.3.2.2 Screening 794.3.2.3 Diagnostic Test 794.3.2.4 Staging 804.3.2.5 Monitoring Tests 804.3.3 Types of Cancer Biomarkers 804.4 Cardiac Biomarkers 804.4.1 Measurement 814.4.2 Types of Cardiac Biomarkers 814.4.2.1 Troponin 814.4.2.2 Creatine Kinase (CK) 824.4.2.3 Myoglobin 824.4.2.4 Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH) 824.4.2.5 C-Reactive Protein (CRP) 824.5 Biomarker of Aging 834.6 Alzheimer’s Biomarker 834.7 HIV Biomarker 854.8 Conclusion 87Acknowledgment 88References 885 Detection of Cancer Cells by Using Biosensors 95Nuzhat Jamil and Waheed S. Khan5.1 Introduction 955.2 Early Stage Detection of Cancer and Its Importance 965.3 Biosensor – A Good Option for Detecting Cancers 965.4 Cancers Commonly Observed in Females 975.4.1 Breast Cancer Detection 975.4.1.1 Electrochemical DNA Biosensor Based on Immobilized ZnO Nanowires 975.4.1.2 Optical Biosensor of Breast Cancer Cells 985.4.1.3 Microfluidic Plasmonic Biosensor 1005.4.1.4 QCM Biosensor for Sensitive and Selective Detection 1005.4.2 Ovarian Cancer Detection 1025.4.2.1 ZnO–Au-Based Electrochemical Biosensor for Ovarian Cancer 1025.4.2.2 Magnetic Nanoparticle–Antibody Conjugates (MNP–ABS)-Based Assay 1035.4.3 Cervical Cancer Detection 1035.4.3.1 Impedimetric Biosensor for Early Detection of Cervical Cancer 1045.4.3.2 Automated Cervical Cancer Detection Using Photonic Crystal-Based Biosensor 1055.5 Cancers Commonly Observed in Males 1065.5.1 Lung Cancer Detection 1065.5.2 Gold Nanoparticle-Based Colorimetric Biosensor 1065.6 Prostate Cancer Detection 1075.6.1 Novel Label-Free Electrochemical Immunosensor for Ultrasensitive Detection of Prostate-Specific Antigen Based on the Enhanced Catalytic Currents of Oxygen Reduction Catalyzed by Core–Shell Au@Pt Nanocrystals 1075.6.2 Electrochemical Biosensor to Simultaneously Detect VEGF and PSA for Early Prostate Cancer Diagnosis Based on Graphene Oxide/ssDNA/PLLA Nanoparticles 1085.6.3 Detection of Early Stage Prostate Cancer by Using a Simple Carbon Nanotube@Paper Biosensor 1095.7 Oral Cancer 1105.7.1 Graphene Biosensor Based on Antigen Concentration in Saliva 1105.8 Conclusions 111Acknowledgments 112References 1126 Biosensor Applications for Viral and Bacterial Disease Diagnosis 117Ayesha Shaheen, Rabia Arshad, Ayesha Taj, Usman Latif, and Sadia Z. Bajwa6.1 Introduction 1176.2 Dengue Fever Virus Detection 1186.2.1 Nanostructured Electrochemical Biosensor 1186.2.2 Plasmonic Biosensor for Early Detection of Dengue Virus 1206.2.3 Impedimetric Biosensor to Test Neat Serum for Dengue Virus 1206.3 Zika Virus Detection 1226.3.1 Electrochemical Biosensors for Early Stage Zika Diagnostics 1226.3.2 Novel Graphene-Based Biosensor for Early Detection of Zika Virus 1246.3.3 Smartphone-Based Diagnostic Platform for Rapid Detection of Zika Virus 1266.4 Yellow Fever 1266.4.1 Field-Effect Transistor Biosensor for Rapid Detection of Ebola Antigen 1276.5 Hepatitis B 1286.5.1 Carbon Nanotube-Based Biosensor for Detection of Hepatitis B 1286.5.2 Gold Nanorod-Based Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) Biosensor for Sensitive Detection of Hepatitis B Virus 1296.5.3 Amplified Detection of Hepatitis B Virus Using an Electrochemical DNA Biosensor on a Nanoporous Gold Platform 1296.6 Hepatitis C 1306.6.1 Aggregation of Gold Nanoparticles: A Novel Nanoparticle Biosensor Approach for the Direct Quantification of Hepatitis C 1316.6.2 Impedimetric Genosensor for Detection of Hepatitis C Virus (HCV1) DNA Using the Viral Probe on Methylene Blue-Doped Silica Nanoparticles 1326.6.3 Ultrasensitive Aptasensor Based on a GQD Nanocomposite for Detection of Hepatitis C Virus Core Antigen 1336.7 Typhoid Fever 1346.7.1 Graphene Oxide–Chitosan Nanocomposite-Based Electrochemical DNA Biosensor for Detection of Typhoid 1356.8 Mycobacterium tuberculosis 1376.8.1 Gold Nanotube Array Electrode Platform-Based Electrochemical Biosensor for Detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis DNA 1386.8.2 Label-Free Biosensor Based on Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance for Diagnosis of Tuberculosis 1386.9 Conclusions 139Acknowledgment 140References 1407 Detection of HIV Virus Using Biosensor 149Haq Nawaz, Muhammad Tahir, Shumaila Anwar, Muhammad Irfan Majeed, and Nosheen Rashid7.1 Introduction 1497.1.1 Structure and Genomic Specifications of HIV 1507.1.2 Morphology 1507.2 Electrochemical Based Biosensors for HIV Detection 1557.2.1 DNA Electrochemical Biosensors for Detection of HIV 1557.2.1.1 Detection of HIV DNA Sequence 1557.2.2 Label-Free Electrochemical Biosensor for Detection of HIV 1567.2.3 Ultrasensitive Biosensors for HIV Gene 1577.2.4 Optical Biosensors for HIV Detection 1587.2.5 Nanostructured Optical Photonic Crystal Biosensor for HIV 1597.2.5.1 Virus Capture 1607.2.6 Surface Plasmon Resonance-Based Biosensors 1607.2.7 Sensitive Impedimetric DNA Biosensor for the Determination of the HIV-1 Gene 1627.2.8 Improved Piezoelectric Biosensor for HIV Rapid Detection of HIV 1637.2.8.1 Measurement Procedure 1637.3 Conclusions 164Acknowledgments 165References 1658 Use of Biosensors for Mycotoxins Analysis in Food Stuff 171Muhammad Rizwan Younis, Chen Wang, Muhammad Adnan Younis, and Xing-Hua Xia8.1 Introduction 1718.2 Types of Mycotoxins 1738.2.1 Aflatoxins 1738.2.2 Ochratoxins 1748.2.3 Citrinin 1748.2.4 Patulin 1748.2.5 Fusarium 1758.3 Biosensors for Aflatoxin Detection 1758.3.1 DNA-Based Biosensor for Aflatoxins 1768.3.2 Electrochemical Detection Systems 1798.3.3 Carbon Nanotube (CNT)-Based Aflatoxin Biosensor 1808.3.4 QCM Biosensor for Aflatoxin 1828.4 Biosensors for Ochratoxins 1858.4.1 Horseradish Peroxidase-Screen-Printed Biosensor for the Determination of Ochratoxin 1858.4.2 Aptamer–DNAzyme Hairpin Biosensor for Ochratoxin 1868.4.3 Development of QCM-D Biosensor for Ochratoxin A 1898.5 Biosensors for Citrinin Determination 1928.5.1 Molecular Imprinted Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) Biosensor 1928.6 Biosensors for Patulin Determination 1948.6.1 Cerium Oxide ISFET-Based Immune Biosensor 1948.6.2 Conductometric Enzyme Biosensor for Patulin Determination 1968.7 Biosensors for Fusarium Determination 1968.7.1 Rapid Biosensor for the Detection of Mycotoxin in Wheat (MYCOHUNT) 1988.8 Conclusions 198Acknowledgment 199References 1999 Development of Biosensors for Drug Detection Applications 203Razium Ali Soomro9.1 Introduction 2039.2 What is the Need of Biosensors for Drug Detection? 2059.3 Biosensors for the Detection of Antibiotics 2069.3.1 Electrochemical Biosensor for Antibiotics 2079.3.2 Voltammetric Biosensor for Antibiotics 2079.3.3 Photoelectrochemical Biosensors for Antibiotics 2099.3.4 Amperometric Biosensor for Antibiotics 2119.4 Biosensors for the Detection of Therapeutic Drugs 2129.5 Biosensors for Neurotransmitter 2149.6 Conclusion and Perspective 219Acknowledgment 219References 22010 Detecting the Presence of Illicit Drugs Using Biosensors 223Muhammad Irfan Majeed, Haq Nawaz, and Falaq Naz Arshad10.1 Introduction 22310.1.1 Classification of Illicit Drugs 22410.1.2 Drug’s Effect on Brain and Body 22510.1.3 Signs of Illicit Drug Addiction 22510.1.4 Biosensors for Illicit Drugs 22610.1.5 Nanomaterials for Biosensors 22710.1.6 Molecular Receptors for the Nanobiosensors 22910.2 Cocaine Detection 23010.2.1 Quantum Dot-Based Optical Biosensors for Cocaine Detection 23010.2.2 Nanopore Biosensor for Rapid and Highly Sensitive Cocaine Detection 23110.2.3 Colorimetric Cocaine Aptasensors 23210.2.4 Electrochemical Based Cocaine Aptasensors 23410.3 Methamphetamine Detection 23410.3.1 Nonaggregated Au@Ag Core–Shell Nanoparticle Based Colorimetric Biosensor for Methamphetamine Detection 23510.4 Chlorpromazine Detection 23710.4.1 DNA Intercalation-Based Amperometric Biosensor for Chlorpromazine Detection 23810.5 Codeine Detection 23910.6 Morphine Detection 24110.7 Alcohol Detection 24210.8 Conclusion 244Acknowledgments 245References 24511 Biosensors for Determination of Pesticides and Their Residues 255Asma Rehman, Lutfur Rahman, Bushra Tehseen, and Hafiza F. Khalid11.1 Introduction 25511.2 Types of Pesticides and Their Benefits 25611.2.1 Insecticides 25611.2.2 Herbicides 25711.2.3 Fungicides 25711.2.4 Benefits of Pesticides 25811.2.5 Beneficiaries of Pesticides 25811.2.6 Controlling Agricultural Pests and Vectors of Plant Disease 25911.2.7 Benefits of Pesticides to Prevent Organisms that Harm Other Activities or Damage Structures 26011.3 Detrimental Effects: Health and Environmental Effects 26111.3.1 Impact of Pesticides on Human Health: Topical or Systemic 26211.3.2 Short-Term Effects of Pesticides 26211.3.3 Long-Term Effects of Pesticides 26311.3.4 Effects of Pesticides on Pregnant Women 26311.3.5 Pesticides and Children 26311.3.6 Effects of Pesticides on the Environment 26411.3.7 Safe Use of Pesticides 26411.4 AuNP/MPS/Au Electrode Sensing Layer-Based Electrochemical Biosensor for Pesticide Monitoring 26511.5 Citrate-Stabilized AuNP-Based Optical Biosensor for Rapid Pesticide Residue Detection of Terbuthylazine and Dimethoate 26611.6 Piezoelectric Biosensor for Rapid Detection of Pesticide Residue 26711.7 Amperometric Acetylcholinesterase Biosensor Based on Gold Nanorods for Detection of Organophosphate Pesticides 27211.8 Conclusions 275Acknowledgment 275References 27512 Detection of Avian Influenza Virus 289Waheed S. Khan, and Muhammad Zubair Iqbal12.1 Introduction 28912.2 Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS)-Based Nanosensor 29012.2.1 Design of Magnetic Immunoassay Based on SERS Strategy 29112.3 Carbon Nanotube-Based Chemiresistive Biosensors for Label-Free Detection of DNA Sequences 29212.4 Influenza Virus Detection Using Electrochemical Biosensors 29712.5 Aptamer-Based Biosensors 30312.6 Conclusions 304Acknowledgments 305References 30613 Biosensors for Swine Influenza Viruses 311Madiha Saeed and Aiguo Wu13.1 Introduction 31113.2 Diagnostic Methods for Swine Influenza Virus and Their Limitations 31213.3 Nanomaterial-Based Sensors 31313.3.1 Applications of Carbon-Based Nanomaterials 31313.3.2 Gold Nanoparticle-Based Biosensing 31513.3.3 Gold Nanoparticle-Based Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance Sensors 31513.3.4 Magnetic Nanoparticle-Based Biosensing 31913.3.5 Others 32113.4 Conclusion 321Acknowledgments 322References 32214 Biosensors for Detection of Marine Toxins 329Khizra Bano, Waheed S. Khan, Chuanbao Cao, Rao F.H. Khan, and Thomas J. Webster14.1 Introduction 32914.2 Algal Blooms and Marine Toxins 33014.3 Classification of Marine Toxins, also Known as Biotoxins 33014.4 Harmful Effect of Marine Toxins on Human Health 33514.5 Biosensing of Marine Toxins 33714.5.1 SPR-Based Biosensors for Marine Toxins with Special Reference to Saxitoxin Sensing 33814.5.2 Detection of Marine Biotoxin in Shellfish 34414.5.3 Smartphone-Based Portable Detection System for Marine Toxins 34514.5.4 Superparamagnetic Nanobead-Based Immunochromatographic Assay for Detection of Toxic Marine Algae 34714.5.5 Gold Nanorod Aggregation-Based Optical Biosensor for Rapid Endotoxin Detection 34914.6 Conclusion 350Acknowledgments 351References 35115 Smartphone-Based Biosensors 357Muhammad Rizwan Younis, Chen Wang, Muhammad Adnan Younis, and Xing-Hua Xia15.1 Introduction 35715.2 Smartphone-Based Devices andTheir Applications 36015.3 Rapid GMR Biosensor Platform with Smartphone Interface 36315.4 Smartphone-Based Electrochemical Biosensor for Portable Detection of Clenbuterol 36715.5 Biosensing of Metal Ions by a Novel 3D-Printable Smartphone 36915.6 Ambient Light-Based Optical Biosensing Platform with Smartphone-Embedded Illumination Sensor 37215.7 Smartphone Optical Biosensor Point-of-Care Diagnostics 37415.8 Monitoring of Cardiovascular Diseases at the Point of Care by Smartphone 37715.9 Smartphone-Based Sensing System Using ZnO- and Graphene-Modified Electrodes for VOCs Detection 37915.10 Use of Smartphone Technology in Cardiology 38115.11 Smartphone-Based Enzymatic Biosensor for Oral Fluid l-Lactate Detection 38315.12 Conclusions 385Acknowledgments 385References 385Index 389