Modern Nuclear Chemistry

WALTER D. LOVELAND, PhD, is a professor of chemistry at Oregon State University, USA. DAVID J. MORRISSEY, PhD, is a professor of chemistry and associate director of the National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory at Michigan State University, USA. GLENN T. SEABORG, PhD (deceased), was a professor of chemistry at the University of California, Berkeley, and cofounder and chairman of the Lawrence Hall of Science, USA. He is credited with discovering 10 new elements, including plutonium and one that now bears his name, seaborgium. In 1951, Dr. Seaborg and his colleague, Edwin McMillan, were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for research into transuranium elements.

• Preface to the Second Edition xvPreface to the First Edition xvii1 Introductory Concepts 11.1 Introduction 11.2 The Excitement and Relevance of Nuclear Chemistry 21.3 The Atom 31.4 Atomic Processes 41.4.1 Ionization 51.4.2 X-Ray Emission 51.5 The Nucleus: Nomenclature 71.6 Properties of the Nucleus 81.7 Survey of Nuclear Decay Types 91.8 Modern Physical Concepts Needed in Nuclear Chemistry 121.8.1 Elementary Mechanics 131.8.2 Relativistic Mechanics 141.8.3 de Broglie Wavelength: Wave–Particle Duality 161.8.4 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle 181.8.5 Units and Conversion Factors 19Problems 19Bibliography 212 Nuclear Properties 252.1 Nuclear Masses 252.2 Terminology 282.3 Binding Energy Per Nucleon 292.4 Separation Energy Systematics 312.5 Abundance Systematics 322.6 Semiempirical Mass Equation 332.7 Nuclear Sizes and Shapes 392.8 Quantum Mechanical Properties 432.8.1 Nuclear Angular Momentum 432.9 Electric and Magnetic Moments 452.9.1 Magnetic Dipole Moment 452.9.2 Electric Quadrupole Moment 48Problems 51Bibliography 553 Radioactive Decay Kinetics 573.1 Basic Decay Equations 573.2 Mixture of Two Independently Decaying Radionuclides 653.3 Radioactive Decay Equilibrium 663.4 Branching Decay 763.5 Radiation Dosage 773.6 Natural Radioactivity 793.6.1 General Information 793.6.2 Primordial Nuclei and the Uranium Decay Series 793.6.3 Cosmogenic Nuclei 813.6.4 Anthropogenic Nuclei 833.6.5 Health Effects of Natural Radiation 833.7 Radionuclide Dating 84Problems 90Bibliography 924 Nuclear Medicine 934.1 Introduction 934.2 Radiopharmaceuticals 944.3 Imaging 964.4 99Tcm 984.5 PET 1014.6 Other Imaging Techniques 1034.7 Some Random Observations about the Physics of Imaging 1044.8 Therapy 108Problems 110Bibliography 1125 Particle Physics and the Nuclear Force 1135.1 Particle Physics 1135.2 The Nuclear Force 1175.3 Characteristics of the Strong Force 1195.4 Charge Independence of Nuclear Forces 120Problems 124Bibliography 1246 Nuclear Structure 1256.1 Introduction 1256.2 Nuclear Potentials 1276.3 Schematic Shell Model 1296.4 Independent Particle Model 1416.5 Collective Model 1436.6 Nilsson Model 1496.7 Fermi Gas Model 152Problems 161Bibliography 1647 𝛂-Decay 1677.1 Introduction 1677.2 Energetics of α Decay 1697.3 Theory of α Decay 1737.4 Hindrance Factors 1827.5 Heavy Particle Radioactivity 1837.6 Proton Radioactivity 185Problems 186Bibliography 1888 𝛃-Decay 1918.1 Introduction 1918.2 Neutrino Hypothesis 1928.3 Derivation of the Spectral Shape 1968.4 Kurie Plots 1998.5 β Decay Rate Constant 2008.6 Electron Capture Decay 2068.7 Parity Nonconservation 2078.8 Neutrinos Again 2088.9 β-Delayed Radioactivities 2098.10 Double β Decay 211Problems 213Bibliography 2149 𝛄-Ray Decay 2179.1 Introduction 2179.2 Energetics of γ-Ray Decay 2189.3 Classification of Decay Types 2209.4 Electromagnetic Transition Rates 2239.5 Internal Conversion 2299.6 Angular Correlations 2329.7 Mössbauer Effect 238Problems 244Bibliography 24510 Nuclear Reactions 24710.1 Introduction 24710.2 Energetics of Nuclear Reactions 24810.3 Reaction Types and Mechanisms 25210.4 Nuclear Reaction Cross Sections 25310.5 Reaction Observables 26410.6 Rutherford Scattering 26410.7 Elastic (Diffractive) Scattering 26810.8 Aside on the Optical Model 27010.9 Direct Reactions 27110.10 Compound Nuclear Reactions 27310.11 Photonuclear Reactions 27910.12 Heavy-Ion Reactions 28110.12.1 Coulomb Excitation 28410.12.2 Elastic Scattering 28410.12.3 Fusion Reactions 28410.12.4 Incomplete Fusion 28810.12.5 Deep-Inelastic Scattering 28910.13 High-Energy Nuclear Reactions 29110.13.1 Spallation/Fragmentation Reactions 29110.13.2 Reactions Induced by Radioactive Projectiles 29510.13.3 Multifragmentation 29610.13.4 Quark–Gluon Plasma 298Problems 298Bibliography 30211 Fission 30511.1 Introduction 30511.2 Probability of Fission 30811.2.1 Liquid Drop Model 30811.2.2 Shell Corrections 31011.2.3 Spontaneous Fission 31211.2.4 Spontaneously Fissioning Isomers 31511.2.5 The Transition Nucleus 31611.3 Dynamical Properties of Fission Fragments 32311.4 Fission Product Distributions 32711.4.1 Total Kinetic Energy (TKE) Release 32711.4.2 Fission Product Mass Distribution 32711.4.3 Fission Product Charge Distributions 33011.5 Excitation Energy of Fission Fragments 334Problems 337Bibliography 33812 Nuclear Astrophysics 33912.1 Introduction 33912.2 Elemental and Isotopic Abundances 34012.3 Primordial Nucleosynthesis 34312.3.1 Stellar Evolution 34712.4 Thermonuclear Reaction Rates 35112.5 Stellar Nucleosynthesis 35312.5.1 Introduction 35312.5.2 Hydrogen Burning 35312.5.3 Helium Burning 35712.5.4 Synthesis of Nuclei with A < 60 35912.5.5 Synthesis of Nuclei with A > 60 36012.6 Solar Neutrino Problem 36612.6.1 Introduction 36612.6.2 Expected Solar Neutrino Sources, Energies, and Fluxes 36712.6.3 Detection of Solar Neutrinos 36912.6.4 The Solar Neutrino Problem 37112.6.5 Solution to the Problem: Neutrino Oscillations 37112.7 Synthesis of Li, Be, and B 373Problems 375Bibliography 37613 Reactors and Accelerators 37913.1 Introduction 37913.2 Nuclear Reactors 38013.2.1 Neutron-Induced Reaction 38013.2.2 Neutron-Induced Fission 38313.2.3 Neutron Inventory 38413.2.4 Light Water Reactors 38613.2.5 The Oklo Phenomenon 39113.3 Neutron Sources 39213.4 Neutron Generators 39213.5 Accelerators 39313.5.1 Ion Sources 39413.5.2 Electrostatic Machines 39613.5.3 Linear Accelerators 40013.5.4 Cyclotrons, Synchrotrons, and Rings 40313.6 Charged-Particle Beam Transport and Analysis 41013.7 Radioactive Ion Beams 41513.8 Nuclear Weapons 421Problems 425Bibliography 42714 The Transuranium Elements 42914.1 Introduction 42914.2 Limits of Stability 42914.3 Element Synthesis 43414.4 History of Transuranium Element Discovery 43714.5 Superheavy Elements 44914.6 Chemistry of the Transuranium Elements 45314.7 Environmental Chemistry of the Transuranium Elements 461Problems 468Bibliography 46915 Nuclear Reactor Chemistry 47315.1 Introduction 47315.2 Fission Product Chemistry 47515.3 Radiochemistry of Uranium 47815.3.1 Uranium Isotopes 47815.3.2 Metallic Uranium 47815.3.3 Uranium Compounds 47815.3.4 Uranium Solution Chemistry 47915.4 The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: The Front End 48015.4.1 Mining and Milling 48115.4.2 Refining and Chemical Conversion 48315.4.3 Isotopic Enhancement 48415.4.4 Fuel Fabrication 48715.5 The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: The Back End 48815.5.1 Properties of Spent Fuel 48815.5.2 Fuel Reprocessing 49015.6 Radioactive Waste Disposal 49315.6.1 Classifications of Radioactive Waste 49315.6.2 Waste Amounts and Associated Hazards 49415.6.3 Storage and Disposal of Nuclear Waste 49615.6.4 Spent Nuclear Fuel 49715.6.5 HLW 49815.6.6 Transuranic Waste 49915.6.7 Low-Level Waste 49915.6.8 Mill Tailings 50015.6.9 Partitioning of Waste 50015.6.10 Transmutation of Waste 50115.7 Chemistry of Operating Reactors 50415.7.1 Radiation Chemistry of Coolants 50415.7.2 Corrosion 50515.7.3 Coolant Activities 505Problems 506Bibliography 50716 Interaction of Radiation with Matter 50916.1 Introduction 50916.2 Heavy Charged Particles 51216.2.1 Stopping Power 51216.2.2 Range 52116.3 Electrons 52616.4 Electromagnetic Radiation 53216.4.1 Photoelectric Effect 53416.4.2 Compton Scattering 53616.4.3 Pair Production 53716.5 Neutrons 54016.6 Radiation Exposure and Dosimetry 544Problems 548Bibliography 55017 Radiation Detectors 55317.1 Introduction 55317.1.1 Gas Ionization 55417.1.2 Ionization in a Solid (Semiconductor Detectors) 55417.1.3 Solid Scintillators 55517.1.4 Liquid Scintillators 55517.1.5 Nuclear Emulsions 55517.2 Detectors Based on Collecting Ionization 55617.2.1 Gas Ionization Detectors 55717.2.2 Semiconductor Detectors (Solid State Ionization Chambers) 56717.3 Scintillation Detectors 57817.4 Nuclear Track Detectors 58417.5 Neutron Detectors 58517.6 Nuclear Electronics and Data Collection 58717.7 Nuclear Statistics 58917.7.1 Distributions of Data and Uncertainty 59117.7.2 Rejection of Abnormal Data 59717.7.3 Setting Upper LimitsWhen No Counts Are Observed 598Problems 599Bibliography 60018 Nuclear Analytical Methods 60318.1 Introduction 60318.2 Activation Analysis 60318.2.1 Basic Description of the Method 60318.2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Activation Analysis 60518.2.3 Practical Considerations in Activation Analysis 60718.2.4 Applications of Activation Analysis 61118.3 PIXE 61218.4 Rutherford Backscattering 61518.5 Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) 61918.6 Other Mass Spectrometric Techniques 620Problems 621Bibliography 62319 Radiochemical Techniques 62519.1 Introduction 62519.2 Unique Aspects of Radiochemistry 62619.3 Availability of Radioactive Material 63019.4 Targetry 63219.5 Measuring Beam Intensity and Fluxes 63719.6 Recoils, Evaporation Residues, and Heavy Residues 63919.7 Radiochemical Separation Techniques 64419.7.1 Precipitation 64419.7.2 Solvent Extraction 64519.7.3 Ion Exchange 64819.7.4 Extraction Chromatography 65019.7.5 Rapid Radiochemical Separations 65219.8 Low-Level Measurement Techniques 65319.8.1 Blanks 65419.8.2 Low-Level Counting: General Principles 65419.8.3 Low-Level Counting: Details 65519.8.4 Limits of Detection 658Problems 659Bibliography 66020 Nuclear Forensics 66320.1 Introduction 66320.1.1 Basic Principles of Forensic Analysis 66620.2 Chronometry 67020.3 Nuclear Weapons and Their Debris 67220.3.1 RDD or Dirty Bombs 67220.3.2 Nuclear Explosions 67420.4 Deducing Sources and Routes of Transmission 678Problems 680Bibliography 681Appendix A: Fundamental Constants and Conversion Factors 683Appendix B: NuclearWallet Cards 687Appendix C: Periodic Table of the Elements 711Appendix D: Alphabetical List of the Elements 713Appendix E: Elements of Quantum Mechanics 715Index 737