Microwave Devices, Circuits and Subsystems for Communications Engineering

Dr. Ian A Glover is a Senior Lecturer. Research interests: radio science, microwave radio propagation, channel measure ments and modelling, and digital communications coding and modulation. He is co-author of the successful book Digital Communications. Dr. Steve R. Pennock is a Senior Lecturer. Research interests: microwave engineering and communications, inset dielectric guide antennas and subsystems, monolithic microwave integrated circuits, flared slot antennas, discontinuities and non-uniformities in transmission lines and millimetre wave propagation effects. Dr. Peter R. Shepherd is a Senior Lecturer and First Year Course Director. Research interests: microwave engineering and communications, inset dielectric guide antennas and subsystems, monolithic microwave integrated circuits, flared slot antennas, discontinuities and non-uniformities in transmission lines, millimetre wave propagation effects, and mixed signal integrated circuits

• List of Contributors xvPreface xvii1 Overview 1I. A. Glover, S. R. Pennock and P. R. Shepherd1.1 Introduction 11.2 RF Devices 21.3 Signal Transmission and Network Methods 41.4 Amplifiers 51.5 Mixers 61.6 Filters 71.7 Oscillators and Frequency Synthesisers 72 RF Devices: Characteristics and Modelling 9A. Suarez and T. Fernandez2.1 Introduction 92.2 Semiconductor Properties 102.2.1 Intrinsic Semiconductors 102.2.2 Doped Semiconductors 132.2.2.1 N-type doping 132.2.2.2 P-type doping 142.2.3 Band Model for Semiconductors 142.2.4 Carrier Continuity Equation 172.3 P-N Junction 182.3.1 Thermal Equilibrium 182.3.2 Reverse Bias 212.3.3 Forward Bias 232.3.4 Diode Model 242.3.5 Manufacturing 252.3.6 Applications of P-N Diodes at Microwave Frequencies 262.3.6.1 Amplitude modulators 282.3.6.2 Phase shifters 292.3.6.3 Frequency multipliers 302.4 The Schottky Diode 322.4.1 Thermal Equilibrium 322.4.2 Reverse Bias 342.4.3 Forward Bias 352.4.4 Electric Model 362.4.5 Manufacturing 372.4.6 Applications 372.4.6.1 Detectors 382.4.6.2 Mixers 392.5 PIN Diodes 402.5.1 Thermal Equilibrium 402.5.2 Reverse Bias 402.5.3 Forward Bias 412.5.4 Equivalent Circuit 432.5.5 Manufacturing 442.5.6 Applications 452.5.6.1 Switching 452.5.6.2 Phase shifting 472.5.6.3 Variable attenuation 502.5.6.4 Power limiting 502.6 Step-Recovery Diodes 512.7 Gunn Diodes 522.7.1 Self-Oscillations 542.7.2 Operating Modes 552.7.2.1 Accumulation layer mode 562.7.2.2 Transit-time dipole layer mode 562.7.2.3 Quenched dipole layer mode 562.7.2.4 Limited-space-charge accumulation (LSA) mode 572.7.3 Equivalent Circuit 572.7.4 Applications 582.7.4.1 Negative resistance amplifiers 582.7.4.2 Oscillators 592.8 IMPATT Diodes 592.8.1 Doping Profiles 602.8.2 Principle of Operation 602.8.3 Device Equations 622.8.4 Equivalent Circuit 632.9 Transistors 652.9.1 Some Preliminary Comments on Transistor Modelling 652.9.1.1 Model types 652.9.1.2 Small and large signal behaviour 652.9.2 GaAs MESFETs 662.9.2.1 Current-voltage characteristics 682.9.2.2 Capacitance-voltage characteristics 702.9.2.3 Small signal equivalent circuit 712.9.2.4 Large signal equivalent circuit 742.9.2.5 Curtice model 742.9.3 HEMTs 752.9.3.1 Current-voltage characteristics 762.9.3.2 Capacitance-voltage characteristics 782.9.3.3 Small signal equivalent circuit 782.9.3.4 Large signal equivalent circuit 782.9.4 HBTs 802.9.4.1 Current-voltage characteristics 842.9.4.2 Capacitance-voltage characteristics 842.9.4.3 Small signal equivalent circuit 862.9.4.4 Large signal equivalent circuit 872.10 Problems 88References 893 Signal Transmission, Network Methods and Impedance Matching 91N. J. McEwan, T. C. Edwards, D. Dernikas and I. A. Glover3.1 Introduction 913.2 Transmission Lines: General Considerations 923.2.1 Structural Classification 923.2.2 Mode Classes 943.3 The Two-Conductor Transmission Line: Revision of Distributed Circuit Theory 953.3.1 The Differential Equations and Wave Solutions 963.3.2 Characteristic Impedance 983.4 Loss, Dispersion, Phase and Group Velocity 993.4.1 Phase Velocity 1003.4.2 Loss 1003.4.3 Dispersion 1013.4.4 Group Velocity 1023.4.5 Frequency Dependence of Line Parameters 1053.4.5.1 Frequency dependence of G 1083.4.6 High Frequency Operation 1093.4.6.1 Lossless approximation 1113.4.6.2 The telegrapher’s equation and the wave equation 1113.5 Field Theory Method for Ideal TEM Case 1133.5.1 Principles of Electromagnetism: Revision 1143.5.2 The TEM Line 1173.5.3 The Static Solutions 1173.5.4 Validity of the Time Varying Solution 1193.5.5 Features of the TEM Mode 1213.5.5.1 A useful relationship 1223.5.6 Picturing the Wave Physically 1233.6 Microstrip 1263.6.1 Quasi-TEM Mode and Quasi-Static Parameters 1283.6.1.1 Fields and static TEM design parameters 1283.6.1.2 Design aims 1293.6.1.3 Calculation of microstrip physical width 1303.6.2 Dispersion and its Accommodation in Design Approaches 1323.6.3 Frequency Limitations: Surface Waves and Transverse Resonance 1353.6.4 Loss Mechanisms 1373.6.5 Discontinuity Models 1393.6.5.1 The foreshortened open end 1393.6.5.2 Microstrip vias 1413.6.5.3 Mitred bends 1423.6.5.4 The microstrip T-junction 1423.6.6 Introduction to Filter Construction Using Microstrip 1453.6.6.1 Microstrip low-pass filters 1453.6.6.2 Example of low-pass filter design 1483.7 Coupled Microstrip Lines 1483.7.1 Theory Using Even and Odd Modes 1503.7.1.1 Determination of coupled region physical length 1563.7.1.2 Frequency response of the coupled region 1573.7.1.3 Coupler directivity 1583.7.1.4 Coupler compensation by means of lumped capacitors 1593.7.2 Special Couplers: Lange Couplers, Hybrids and Branch-Line Directional Couplers 1613.8 Network Methods 1633.8.1 Revision of z, y, h and ABCD Matrices 1643.8.2 Definition of Scattering Parameters 1663.8.3 S-Parameters for One- and Two-Port Networks 1683.8.4 Advantages of S-Parameters 1713.8.5 Conversion of S-Parameters into Z-Parameters 1713.8.6 Non-Equal Complex Source and Load Impedance 1743.9 Impedance Matching 1763.9.1 The Smith Chart 1763.9.2 Matching Using the Smith Chart 1823.9.2.1 Lumped element matching 1823.9.2.2 Distributed element matching 1873.9.2.3 Single stub matching 1873.9.2.4 Double stub matching 1893.9.3 Introduction to Broadband Matching 1913.9.4 Matching Using the Quarter Wavelength Line Transformer 1943.9.5 Matching Using the Single Section Transformer 1943.10 Network Analysers 1953.10.1 Principle of Operation 1963.10.1.1 The signal source 1973.10.1.2 The two-port test set 1973.10.1.3 The receiver 1983.10.2 Calibration Kits and Principles of Error Correction 1983.10.3 Transistor Mountings 2023.10.4 Calibration Approaches 2063.11 Summary 207References 2084 Amplifier Design 209N. J. McEwan and D. Dernikas4.1 Introduction 2094.2 Amplifier Gain Definitions 2094.2.1 The Transducer Gain 2114.2.2 The Available Power Gain 2124.2.3 The Operating Power Gain 2134.2.4 Is There a Fourth Definition? 2134.2.5 The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem 2134.2.6 Effect of Load on Input Impedance 2164.2.7 The Expression for Transducer Gain 2184.2.8 The Origin of Circle Mappings 2214.2.9 Gain Circles 2224.3 Stability 2234.3.1 Oscillation Conditions 2244.3.2 Production of Negative Resistance 2274.3.3 Conditional and Unconditional Stability 2284.3.4 Stability Circles 2294.3.5 Numerical Tests for Stability 2304.3.6 Gain Circles and Further Gain Definitions 2314.3.7 Design Strategies 2374.4 Broadband Amplifier Design 2394.4.1 Compensated Matching Example 2404.4.2 Fano’s Limits 2414.4.3 Negative Feedback 2434.4.4 Balanced Amplifiers 2444.4.4.1 Principle of operation 2454.4.4.2 Comments 2454.4.4.3 Balanced amplifier advantages 2464.4.4.4 Balanced amplifier disadvantages 2464.5 Low Noise Amplifier Design 2464.5.1 Revision of Thermal Noise 2464.5.2 Noise Temperature and Noise Figure 2484.5.3 Two-Port Noise as a Four Parameter System 2504.5.4 The Dependence on Source Impedance 2514.5.5 Noise Figures Circles 2544.5.6 Minimum Noise Design 2554.6 Practical Circuit Considerations 2564.6.1 High Frequencies Components 2564.6.1.1 Resistors 2564.6.1.2 Capacitors 2594.6.1.3 Capacitor types 2614.6.1.4 Inductors 2634.6.2 Small Signal Amplifier Design 2674.6.2.1 Low-noise amplifier design using CAD software 2684.6.2.2 Example 2694.6.3 Design of DC Biasing Circuit for Microwave Bipolar Transistors 2724.6.3.1 Passive biasing circuits 2724.6.3.2 Active biasing circuits 2744.6.4 Design of Biasing Circuits for GaAs FET Transistors 2774.6.4.1 Passive biasing circuits 2774.6.4.2 Active biasing circuits 2794.6.5 Introduction of the Biasing Circuit 2794.6.5.1 Implementation of the RFC in the bias network 2824.6.5.2 Low frequency stability 2874.6.5.3 Source grounding techniques 2884.7 Computer Aided Design (CAD) 2904.7.1 The RF CAD Approach 2914.7.2 Modelling 2934.7.3 Analysis 2964.7.3.1 Linear frequency domain analysis 2964.7.3.2 Non-linear time domain transient analysis 2974.7.3.3 Non-linear convolution analysis 2974.7.3.4 Harmonic balance analysis 2974.7.3.5 Electromagnetic analysis 2984.7.3.6 Planar electromagnetic simulation 2984.7.4 Optimisation 2984.7.4.1 Optimisation search methods 2994.7.4.2 Error function formulation 3004.7.5 Further Features of RF CAD Tools 3024.7.5.1 Schematic capture of circuits 3024.7.5.2 Layout-based design 3024.7.5.3 Statistical design of RF circuits 303Appendix I 306Appendix II 306References 3105 Mixers: Theory and Design 311L. de la Fuente and A. Tazon5.1 Introduction 3115.2 General Properties 3115.3 Devices for Mixers 3135.3.1 The Schottky-Barrier Diode 3135.3.1.1 Non-linear equivalent circuit 3135.3.1.2 Linear equivalent circuit at an operating point 3145.3.1.3 Experimental characterization of Schottky diodes 3175.3.2 Bipolar Transistors 3195.3.3 Field-Effect Transistors 3215.4 Non-Linear Analysis 3225.4.1 Intermodulation Products 3235.4.2 Application to the Schottky-Barrier Diode 3275.4.3 Intermodulation Power 3275.4.4 Linear Approximation 3295.5 Diode Mixer Theory 3315.5.1 Linear Analysis: Conversion Matrices 3325.5.1.1 Conversion matrix of a non-linear resistance/conductance 3335.5.1.2 Conversion matrix of a non-linear capacitance 3355.5.1.3 Conversion matrix of a linear resistance 3365.5.1.4 Conversion matrix of the complete diode 3375.5.1.5 Conversion matrix of a mixer circuit 3375.5.1.6 Conversion gain and input/output impedances 3385.5.2 Large Signal Analysis: Harmonic Balance Simulation 3395.6 FET Mixers 3415.6.1 Single-Ended FET Mixers 3415.6.1.1 Simplified analysis of a single-gate FET mixer 3415.6.1.2 Large-signal and small-signal analysis of single-gate FET mixers 3435.6.1.3 Other topologies 3465.7 Double–Gate FET Mixers 3495.7.1 IF Amplifier 3545.7.2 Final Design 3555.7.3 Mixer Measurements 3565.8 Single-Balanced FET Mixers 3585.9 Double-Balanced FET Mixers 3595.10 Harmonic Mixers 3605.10.1 Single-Device Harmonic Mixers 3625.10.2 Balanced Harmonic Mixers 3625.11 Monolithic Mixers 3645.11.1 Characteristics of Monolithic Medium 3655.11.2 Devices 3665.11.3 Single-Device FET Mixers 3665.11.4 Single-Balanced FET Mixers 3685.11.5 Double-Balanced FET Mixers 370Appendix I 375Appendix II 375References 3766 Filters 379A. Mediavilla6.1 Introduction 3796.2 Filter Fundamentals 3796.2.1 Two-Port Network Definitions 3796.2.2 Filter Description 3816.2.3 Filter Implementation 3836.2.4 The Low Pass Prototype Filter 3836.2.5 The Filter Design Process 3846.2.5.1 Filter simulation 3846.3 Mathematical Filter Responses 3856.3.1 The Butterworth Response 3856.3.2 The Chebyshev Response 3866.3.3 The Bessel Response 3906.3.4 The Elliptic Response 3906.4 Low Pass Prototype Filter Design 3936.4.1 Calculations for Butterworth Prototype Elements 3956.4.2 Calculations for Chebyshev Prototype Elements 4006.4.3 Calculations for Bessel Prototype Elements 4046.4.4 Calculations for Elliptic Prototype Elements 4056.5 Filter Impedance and Frequency Scaling 4056.5.1 Impedance Scaling 4056.5.2 Frequency Scaling 4106.5.3 Low Pass to Low Pass Expansion 4106.5.4 Low Pass to High Pass Transformation 4126.5.5 Low Pass to Band Pass Transformation 4146.5.6 Low Pass to Band Stop Transformation 4186.5.7 Resonant Network Transformations 4216.6 Elliptic Filter Transformation 4236.6.1 Low Pass Elliptic Translation 4236.6.2 High Pass Elliptic Translation 4256.6.3 Band Pass Elliptic Translation 4266.6.4 Band Stop Elliptic Translation 4266.7 Filter Normalisation 4296.7.1 Low Pass Normalisation 4296.7.2 High Pass Normalisation 4306.7.3 Band Pass Normalisation 4316.7.3.1 Broadband band pass normalisation 4326.7.3.2 Narrowband band pass normalisation 4336.7.4 Band Stop Normalisation 4356.7.4.1 Broadband band stop normalisation 4366.7.7.2 Narrowband band stop normalisation 4387 Oscillators, Frequency Synthesisers and PLL Techniques 461E. Artal, J. P. Pascual and J. Portilla7.1 Introduction 4617.2 Solid State Microwave Oscillators 4617.2.1 Fundamentals 4617.2.1.1 An IMPATT oscillator 4637.2.2 Stability of Oscillations 4667.3 Negative Resistance Diode Oscillators 4677.3.1 Design Technique Examples 4697.4 Transistor Oscillators 4697.4.1 Design Fundamentals of Transistor Oscillators 4717.4.1.1 Achievement of the negative resistance 4727.4.1.2 Resonator circuits for transistor oscillators 4737.4.2 Common Topologies of Transistor Oscillators 4757.4.2.1 The Colpitts oscillator 4767.4.2.2 The Clapp oscillator 4777.4.2.3 The Hartley oscillator 4777.4.2.4 Other practical topologies of transistor oscillators 4787.4.2.5 Microwave oscillators using distributed elements 4787.4.3 Advanced CAD Techniques of Transistor Oscillators 4797.5 Voltage-Controlled Oscillators 4817.5.1 Design Fundamentals of Varactor-Tuned Oscillators 4817.5.2 Some Topologies of Varactor-Tuned Oscillators 4827.5.2.1 VCO based on the Colpitts topology 4827.5.2.2 VCO based on the Clapp topology 4837.5.2.3 Examples of practical topologies of microwave VCOs 4837.6 Oscillator Characterisation and Testing 4847.6.1 Frequency 4857.6.2 Output Power 4857.6.3 Stability and Noise 4857.6.3.1 AM and PM noise 4867.6.4 Pulling and Pushing 4887.7 Microwave Phase Locked Oscillators 4897.7.1 PLL Fundamentals 4897.7.2 PLL Stability 4937.8 Subsystems for Microwave Phase Locked Oscillators (PLOs) 4937.8.1 Phase Detectors 4947.8.1.1 Exclusive-OR gate 4957.8.1.2 Phase-frequency detectors 4967.8.2 Loop Filters 5017.8.3 Mixers and Harmonic Mixers 5057.8.4 Frequency Multipliers and Dividers 5067.8.4.1 Dual modulus divider 5067.8.4.2 Multipliers 5087.8.5 Synthesiser ICs 5087.9 Phase Noise 5097.9.1 Free running and PLO Noise 5137.9.1.1 Effect of multiplication in phase noise 5147.9.2 Measuring Phase Noise 5147.10 Examples of PLOs 514References 518Index 519

"…this book is a good reference for [the] microwave engineering community." (IEEE Circuits & Devices Magazine, November/December 2006)