Literate Lives

Amy Seely Flint is an Associate Professor at Georgia State University. Dr. Flint has received a number of grants to support teachers as they engage in professional development opportunities focused on literacy development. She was an elementary school teacher for a number of years in Atlanta, Georgia and Los Angeles, California.

• Part I: Gaining a Knowledge Base about Reading and Learners1 Examining Literacy in the Twenty-First Century 2OPENING VIGNETTE: Discovering What Makes a GoodReader and a Good Teacher of Readers 2THE GAP: LITERACY PRACTICES IN SCHOOL AND OUTSIDE OF SCHOOL 4PERSPECTIVES ON WHAT IT MEANS TO BE LITERATE 5MODELS OF SCHOOLING THAT IMPACT LITERACY DEVELOPMENT 6Learning Is about Skill Building: Industrial Model 6Investigating a Question: Inquiry Model 8Problematizing the Status Quo: Critical Model 9SIX GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR TEACHING READING AND WRITING IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY 11Principle #1: Literacy Practices Are Socially and Culturally Constructed. 11Principle #2: Literacy Practices Are Purposeful. 12Principle #3: Literacy Practices Contain Ideologies and Values. 13Autonomous model 13Ideological model 14Principle #4: Literacy Practices Are Learned through Inquiry. 14Principle #5: Literacy Practices Invite Readers and Writers to Use Their Background Knowledge and Cultural Understandings to Make Sense of Texts. 15Principle #6 Literacy Practices Expand to Include Everyday Texts and Multimodal Texts. 16THE ROLE OF NO CHILD LEFT BEHIND IN LITERACY INSTRUCTION 18Scientifically Based Reading Instruction and the National Reading Panel 19Reading First Initiative 20CREATING A VISION FOR EFFECTIVE LITERACY INSTRUCTION 21IN CLOSING 222 Oral Language Learning in and Out of the Classroom 24OPENING VIGNETTE: My Heart be Beepin’: Ms. Adams Learns From Angie 24ORAL LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT FROM A SOCIOCRITICAL PERSPECTIVE 26Language Practices Are Dialogic and Evolving 27Language Practices Are Culturally andSocially Situated 29Language Practices Reflect Power and Politics 29VARIATIONS IN ORAL LANGUAGE 30Increase of Multiple Languages in Classroom Settings 31Linguistic Variation within English: Is there a Standard? 34Register 34Dialects 35African American Vernacular or “Ebonics” 36Classroom approaches to issues of dialect 36Language Variation as a Resource, Not a Deficit 37Language Policies: Implications for Teaching Literacy 39CONDITIONS AND MODELS FOR ORAL LANGUAGE ACQUISITION 41Cambourne’s Model of Oral Language Development 41Cambourne’s conditions for oral language development 42Cambourne’s conditions for reading and writing 43Halliday’s Model of Language Acquisition 44Learning language 44Learning about language 44Learning through language 48LANGUAGE CUEING SYSTEMS THAT SUPPORTREADING AND WRITING DEVELOPMENT 50Graphophonemic: Sounds and Symbols 50Phonemes and phonemic awareness 50Phonetics and phonics 52Semantics: The Meaning of Words 53Syntactics: The Structure of Language 54Pragmatics: Language in Use 55IN CLOSING 563 Getting to Know Students: Developing Culturally Relevant Practices for Reading and Writing 58OPENING VIGNETTE: Ms. Garrity Learns from Bianca 58EXAMINING CULTURAL DIVERSITY INCLASSROOM SETTINGS 61The Divide between the Teacher’s Culture and Students’Cultures 61Recognizing Differences within English LanguageLearners 62Learning about Home and Community Practices 63Funds of knowledge 64Virtual school bags 65TEACHING FROM A CULTURALLY RELEVANT PERSPECTIVE 66Supporting Linguistically Diverse Learners in Reading and Writing 67Connect students’ background knowledge and personal experiences to literacy events 68Create opportunities for students to meaningfully and authentically apply oral language skills 69Encourage students’ primary language and/or code switching during literacy events 70Contextualize instruction of language through authentic literature 70Documenting students’ home and community literacy practices 72Establishing Culturally Relevant Interaction Patterns in Literacy Events 72Read aloud from a teacher-centered perspective 73Read aloud from a student-centered perspective 74USING EARLY ASSESSMENT TO KNOW YOUR STUDENTS 76Kidwatching 77Attitudes and Interest in Reading and Writing 80Attitude questionnaires and surveys 80Interviews 81IN CLOSING 824 Theories of Literacy Development 84OPENING VIGNETTE: Ms Young Herr Discovers the Role of Theory in Creating Curriculum 84WHAT DOES THEORY HAVE TO DO WITH CURRICULUM BUILDING? 87Uncovering your Beliefs about Teaching and Instruction 87FOUR CLASSROOM PORTRAITS AND FOUR THEORIES OF LITERACY DEVELOPMENT 88Robyn Teal’s Classroom: Learning to Read Means Focusing on Skills 88Bottom-up theory of literacy development 91Skills model 91Another glimpse into Ms. Teal’s classroom 92Ms. Sharonda Battle’s Classroom: Learning to Read Means Understanding the Meaning of Words 92Top-down theory of literacy development 96Whole language model of literacy development 96Another glimpse into Ms. Battle’s classroom 97Mr. Thomas Ruby’s Classroom: Learning to Read Means Learning How to Respond to Text 98Transactional theory of reading 99Reader response model 101Another glimpse into Mr. Ruby’s classroom 102Ms. Pauline Fuller’s Classroom: Learning How to Read Means Critically Examining the Text 103Critical theories and critical literacy 104Four-resource model 105Halliday + 107Another glimpse into Ms. Fuller’s classroom 107LOOKING ACROSS THE FOUR READING MODELS 108IN CLOSING 1105 Literacy Programs and Approaches 112OPENING VIGNETTE: Ms. Binns Rethinks Sustained, Silent Reading Time 112FOUR DECADES OF CHANGE IN READING AND WRITING CURRICULUM 115Skills: Grammar, Decoding, and Drills 115Whole Language: Authentic Texts and Meaning Making 116The Balanced Approach to Literacy DevelopmentPrescriptive Reading Programs and Materials:Connections to “Scientifically Based ReadingResearch” 117BASAL READERS: THE MOST FAMILIAR READING MATERIAL IN THE CLASSROOM 119Common Characteristics and Features 119Differences among Basal Programs 121Literature-based basals 121Phonics-oriented basals 121Classroom Organizational Structures when Using Basal Materials 122Organizing Daily Instruction When Using Reading Anthologies and Leveled Texts 123Reading anthology lesson 123Guided reading group lesson 124CONCERNS WITH PRESCRIPTIVE APPROACHES 126One Size Does Not Fit All 126The Lack of Additional Support or Alternatives 127THE READER/WRITER WORKSHOP APPROACH FOR LITERACY DEVELOPMENT 128Designing a Literacy-Rich Reader/Writer Workshop 128Organizing a Reader/Writer Workshop 129Spaces and places in the classroom to support literacy development 130Flexible reading groups 132Structure of a Reader/Writer Workshop 132Mini-lessons 133Independent reading and literature discussions 135Writing and responding 135Reading and writing conferences 138Status of the class 138Sharing 138Summary of Teaching Structures for Reader/Writer Workshops 139IN CLOSING 142Part II: Understanding the Reading Process in Classrooms6 Entering into the Literacy Landscape: Emergent Readers and Writers 144OPENING VIGNETTE: Kadin Reads at Home 144HISTORICAL BEGINNINGS OF EMERGENTLITERACY 146Reading Readiness 147Emergent Literacy 148ORAL LANGUAGE LEARNING: WHAT ITMEANS FOREMERGENT READING AND WRITING PRACTICES 150Conditions for Developing Oral Language Skills 151Conditions to Support Young English LanguageLearners in Preschool Settings 152Dimensions of Emergent Literacy 153Concepts of Texts 154Concepts of Words 156Concepts of Letters and Sounds 157Alphabet knowledge 157Phonemic awareness 158Assessing the Dimensions of Emergent Literacy 160EMERGENT WRITING 161Inventing and Refining Written Language Forms 161Emergent Spelling 162Random marks 162Prephonemic 163Early phonemic 163Letter-naming 163Transitional 164Emergent Writing and Meaning Making 165LITERACY AND TECHNOLOGY IN EARLY LITERACY SETTINGS 166Concepts of Screen 167Electronic/Talking Books 168LITERACY EVENTS AND PRACTICES: PROMOTING EMERGENT READING AND WRITING 169Noticing Environmental Print 169Writing Centers 170Storybook Reading 170Storybook Reading as a Cultural Practice 171Sociodramatic Play Settings 172Language Experience Approach Stories (LEA) and Digital Language Experience Approach (D-LEA) 172IN CLOSING 1767 Beginning Readers and Writers 178OPENING VIGNETTE: Ms. Simon’s Class Reads There Was an Old Lady Who Swallowed a Fly 178GUIDING PRINCIPLES TO PROMOTE BEGINNING READING AND WRITING 181EXPLORING BEGINNING READING THROUGH THE FOUR-RESOURCE MODEL 184Code Breaking to Exemplify How Words Work 184Language Play and Rhymes 186Word Families 187Alphabet Knowledge 188High-frequency words 192Mini-lessons for Code Breaking 192Becoming a Text Participant 193Making connections 193Making predictions and inferences 194Visualizing 196Understanding How Texts Are Used 196Thinking Critically about Texts 197READER/WRITER WORKSHOPS FOR BEGINNING READERS 199Creating a Routine for Primary Grade Reading and Writing Workshops 199Mini-lessons 200Reading and Responding 200Read aloud in workshop settings 201Quality picture books for reading aloud 201Approaches to reading aloud 202Shared reading events 205Literature discussions 207Independent and partner reading 207Writing 208Reading and Writing Conferences and Record Keeping 210CONNECTIONS TO STANDARDS AND BENCHMARKS 212IN CLOSING 2148 Intermediate and Accomplished Readers and Writers 216OPENING VIGNETTE: Ms Bell Discovers Her Fifth Grade Readers 216GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR INTERMEDIATE AND ACCOMPLISHED READERS AND WRITERS 218Characteristics of Intermediate and Accomplished Readers 219THE FOUR-RESOURCE MODEL FOR INTERMEDIATE AND ACCOMPLISHED READERS AND WRITERS 219Code Breaking for Intermediate and Accomplished Readers 222Word study strategy 222Developmental word study and spelling 224Reading with fluency 227Text Participant Practices with Intermediate and Accomplished Readers 230Reading easy books with understanding 231Vocabulary development inside text participant practices 232Connecting to the meaning of a text 235Retelling as an avenue for understanding 239Text Use with Intermediate and Accomplished Readers and Writers 240Critical Practices with Intermediate and Accomplished Readers 242READER/WRITER WORKSHOP STRUCTURE FOR INTERMEDIATE AND ACCOMPLISHED READERS AND WRITERS 244Text Sets for Intermediate and Accomplished Readers 244Mini-lessons in Reader/Writer Workshops for Intermediate and Upper Grades 245Literature Discussions with Intermediate and Accomplished Readers and Writers 246Reading and Writing Conferences 247Teacher roles during reading conferences 247CONNECTIONS TO STANDARDS AND BENCHMARKS 248IN CLOSING 2509 Effective Assessment Practices for Reading and Writing 252OPENING VIGNETTE: Ms. Taylor Invites Alternative Response 252FORMATIVE AND SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENTS 255THE PROLIFERATION OF ASSESSMENTS 255PURPOSES FOR ASSESSMENTS 256LITERACY ASSESSMENTS REVEAL IDEOLOGIES ABOUT LEARNING AND LITERACY 258THE CYCLE OF REFLECTION – ASSESSMENT – INSTRUCTION 260WHO IS INTERESTED IN ASSESSMENT?HIGH STAKES FOR PARENTS, TEACHERS, AND SCHOOLS 261TRADITIONAL ASSESSMENT 262Standardized and Multiple Choice Tests 262Informal Reading Inventory and Qualitative Reading Inventory 264ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT PRACTICES 265Characteristics of Alternative Assessments 265TYPES OF ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT PRACTICES 266Documentary/Observation 266Miscue analysis 267Retrospective miscue analysis 267Running records 271Checklists 272Classroom observations and anecdotal records 274Responsive Listening Assessments 275Retellings 276Group discussions 276Reading and writing conferences 277GATHERING INFORMATION TO USE IN ASSESSING READERS’ AND WRITERS’ GROWTH IN LITERACY DEVELOPMENT 277Portfolio Systems 278Writing portfolios 278Reading portfolios 279ASSESSMENT PRACTICES ALIGN WITH CODE BREAKING, TEXT MEANING, TEXT USE, AND CRITICAL PRACTICES 279Code Breaking Assessments 280Text Participant Assessments 283Text Use Assessments 286Critical Practices Assessments 286IN CLOSING 288Part III: Refining Effective Instruction10 Facilitating Meaningful Literature Discussions 290OPENING VIGNETTE: Ms. Wilson’s Fourth Grade Students Talk about The Mouse and the Motorcycle 290AN INSIDE LOOK: TWO VERY DIFFERENT LITERATURE DISCUSSION GROUPS 292GOALS FOR LITERATURE DISCUSSIONS 294HOW READERS MAKE MEANING FROM A TEXT: READER RESPONSE THEORY 295Readers Bring Their Sociocultural Backgrounds to the Text 295Readers Transact with the Text 296Ms. Hammel’s first and second grade students discuss Tomas and the Library Lady 296Stance: A Reader’s Attitude and Purpose 298The Strategic/Literary Dimension: Is the Text for Information or Enjoyment? 298Contextual dimension: Where does the discussion occur? 302Ideological dimension: What beliefs does the reader have? 302Making Stance Visible in Literature Discussions 304INTERPRETIVE AUTHORITY: HOW STUDENTS REACT TO EACH OTHER’S COMMENTS 308Teacher-led Discussions 310Student-led Discussions 310The evaluator role in student-led discussions 311Teacher-led, Student-centered Discussions 312Ms. Reiner’s fifth grade students discuss Tomás and the Library Lady 314Encouraging Readers to Share Interpretive Authority during Literature Discussions 315SUPPORTING THE READER IN HAVING A FLEXIBLE VIEW OF THE TEXT 317IN CLOSING 31811 Reading to Learn: Using Nonfiction and Electronic Media to Support Literacy Development 320OPENING VIGNETTE: Ms Gallagher and Ms Reiner Invite their Students to Inquire 320USING INQUIRY-BASED LEARNING ACROSS THE CURRICULUM 322Key Principles of an Inquiry-based Curriculum 325Problem Posing 326Topic Choice 327Integrating Reading and Writing Strategies 327Sources of Knowledge and the Teacher’s Role 328THE ROLE OF NONFICTION IN DEVELOPING READERS AND WRITERS 329Why Nonfiction Matters 330Inviting Children to Use Nonfiction for Inquiry-based and Content-area Learning 331Evaluating Nonfiction Texts 332Categories of nonfiction texts 333Concept 333Identification 333Procedural 333Biography 334Informational storybooks 334INCORPORATING NONFICTION INTO A READING AND WRITING CURRICULUM 334Read Informational Texts Aloud 335Provide Time to Read in Content Areas 336Pairing Nonfiction with Fiction 337READING STRATEGIES FOR NONFICTION AND CONTENT AREA READING MATERIAL 337Code Breaking Strategies for Nonfiction Text 337Text Participant Strategies for Nonfiction Texts 340Text Use Strategies for Nonfiction Texts 340Critical Practices Strategies for Nonfiction Texts 343NONFICTION TEXTS IN MULTIMODAL ENVIRONMENTS 344Dimensions of Multimodal Literacy 346Integrating Electronic Media into Literacy Instruction 346Linking Electronic Media with Informational Literacy 348Scaffolding Reading and Writing Strategies with Electronic Media 349IN CLOSING 35012 Working With Struggling Readers and Writers 352OPENING VIGNETTE: Mrs. Laughlin Supports Rakwaun as a Reader and Writer 352FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO STRUGGLING READING AND WRITING 355Cognitive Processing 355Motivation and Engagement 355Teacher Beliefs and Attitudes 357IDENTIFYING STRUGGLING READERS AND WRITERS DURING LITERACY EVENTS 358INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES FOR STRUGGLING READERS AND WRITERS 359Interest and Background 360Read Alouds to Extend Comprehension 361Independent Reading Time 361Scheduling Easy Reading time to Gain Confidence 363Scaffolding 364Comprehension Monitoring Strategies 365LITERACY REFORM EFFORTS FOR STRUGGLING SCHOOLS 368Reading Recovery 368Literacy Collaborative 369Four Blocks 370Success for All 371America’s Choice 372TEACHING ALL CHILDREN TO LEAD LITERATE LIVES IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY 373IN CLOSING 375APPENDICES 378GLOSSARY 398REFERENCES 403CHILDREN’S LITERATURE REFERENCES 417TEXT AND ILLUSTRATION CREDITS 420PHOTO CREDITS 423INDEX 425