Literacy for the 21st Century

Gail E. Tompkins is Professor Emerita at California State University, Fresno. Currently, she works with teachers in their kindergarten through eighth-grade classrooms and leads staff-development programs on reading and writing. Dr. Tompkins was inducted into the California Reading Association’s Reading Hall of Fame in recognition of her accomplishments in the field of reading, and she’s received the prestigious Provost’s award for Excellence in Teaching at California State University, Fresno. Dr. Tompkins is the author of six other books published by Pearson: Language Arts: Patterns of Practice, Language Arts Essentials, Teaching Writing: Balancing Process and Product, 50 Literacy Strategies, and two grade-specific versions of this text: Literacy in the Early Grades: A Successful Start for PreK-4 Readers and Writers and Literacy in the Middle Grades: Teaching Reading and Writing to Fourth Through Eighth Graders. During the past three decades, Dr. Tompkins has also worked with kindergarten through college-level writing teachers at National Writing Project sites in California and Oklahoma.

• BRIEF TABLE OF CONTENTS PART ONE Literacy in the 21st Century 1Chapter 1 Becoming an Effective Literacy TeacherChapter 2 The Reading and Writing ProcessesChapter 3 Assessing Literacy Development PART TWO Components of Literacy DevelopmentChapter 4 The Youngest Readers and WritersChapter 5 Cracking the Alphabetic CodeChapter 6 Developing Fluent Readers and WritersChapter 7 Expanding Academic VocabularyChapter 8 Promoting Comprehension: Reader FactorsChapter 9 Promoting Comprehension: Text Factors PART THREE Organizing for InstructionChapter 10 Organizing for InstructionChapter 11 Differentiating for Success PART FOUR Compendium of Instructional ProceduresChapter 12 Reading and Writing Across the Curriculum DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS PART ONE Literacy in the 21st Century 1  Chapter 1 Becoming an Effective Literacy Teacher 4PLAN: Preview the Learning Outcomes 4Principle 1: Effective Teachers Understand How Students Learn 6Behaviorism 6Constructivism 6Sociolinguistics 8Information Processing 10MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 1.1 11Principle 2: Effective Teachers Support Students’ Use of the Cueing Systems 11The Phonological System 12The Syntactic System 13The Semantic System 13The Pragmatic System 14MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 1.2 14Principle 3: Effective Teachers Create a Community of Learners 14Characteristics of a Classroom Community 15How to Create the Classroom Culture 16MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 1.3 16Principle 4: Effective Teachers Adopt a Balanced Approach to Instruction 16MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 1.4 19Principle 5: Effective Teachers Address Standards 19The Common Core State Standards 19MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 1.5 20Principle 6: Effective Teachers Scaffold Students’ Reading and Writing 21Modeled Reading and Writing 22Shared Reading and Writing 23Interactive Reading and Writing 23Guided Reading and Writing 23Independent Reading and Writing 24MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 1.6 24Principle 7: Effective Teachers Organize for Instruction 24Guided Reading 25Basal Reading Programs 25Literature Focus Units 25Literature Circles 25Reading and Writing Workshop 25MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 1.7 28Principle 8: Effective Teachers Differentiate Instruction 28MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 1.8 29Principle 9: Effective Teachers Link Instruction and Assessment 29The Instruction—Assessment Cycle 30Classroom Assessment Tools 31High-Stakes Tests 31MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 1.9 31REVIEW: Teaching Reading and Writing 32Evaluate & Reflect 32References 33  Chapter 2 The Reading and Writing Processes 36PLAN: Preview the Learning Outcomes 36VIGNETTE: The Reading Process in Action 36The Reading Process 39Stage 1: Prereading 41Stage 2: Reading 42Stage 3: Responding 44Stage 4: Exploring 46Stage 5: Applying 47MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 2.1 47The Writing Process 48Stage 1: Prewriting 48Stage 2: Drafting 50Stage 3: Revising 51Stage 4: Editing 52Stage 5: Publishing 55MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 2.2 58The Writer’s Craft 58Ideas 58Organization 58Voice 59Word Choice 59Sentence Fluency 59Conventions 59Presentation 60MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 2.3 61Reading and Writing Are Reciprocal Processes 61Comparing the Two Processes 61Classroom Connections 61MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 2.4 62Literacy Strategies 63Reading Strategies 63Digital Reading Strategies 63Writing Strategies 64Strategy Instruction 64MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 2.5 65REVIEW: Teaching the Reading and Writing Processes 66Evaluate & Reflect 66References 67  Chapter 3 Assessing Literacy Development 70PLAN: Preview the Learning Outcomes 70VIGNETTE: Mrs. McNeal Does Second-Quarter Assessments 70Classroom Assessment 75Step 1: Planning for Assessment 75Step 2: Monitoring Students’ Progress 75Step 3: Evaluating Students’ Learning 78Step 4: Reflecting on Students’ Learning 79MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 3.1 80Diagnostic Tests 80Determining Students’ Reading Levels 81Diagnosing Students’ Strengths and Weaknesses 86MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 3.2 91High-Stakes Testing 91Problems With High-Stakes Testing 92Preparing for Standardized Tests 93The Politics of High-Stakes Testing 96MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 3.3 96Portfolio Assessment 96Collecting Work in Portfolios 97Involving Students in Self-Assessment 97Showcasing Students’ Portfolios 99MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 3.4 99REVIEW: Assessing Literacy Development 99Evaluate & Reflect 100References 101PART TWO Components of Literacy Development 103  Chapter 4 The Youngest Readers and Writers 106PLAN: Preview the Learning Outcomes 106VIGNETTE: K—3 Students’ Literacy Development 106Nurturing Children’s Oral Language Development 111Oral Language Activities 111Learning a Second Language 112The Link Between Oral Language and Literacy 113Assessing Children’s Oral Language 114MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 4.1 114Fostering an Interest in Literacy 114Concepts About Print 114Concepts About Words 115Concepts About the Alphabet 116Assessing Children’s Concepts About Written Language 119MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 4.2 119How Children Develop as Readers and Writers 120Stage 1: Emergent Reading and Writing 120Stage 2: Beginning Reading and Writing 121Stage 3: Fluent Reading and Writing 123MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 4.3 125Instructional Practices 130Morning Message 130Shared Reading 133Language Experience Approach 134Interactive Writing 136Manuscript Handwriting 137Writing Centers 138MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 4.4 139REVIEW: Teaching the Youngest Readers and Writers 139Evaluate & Reflect 140References 140  Chapter 5 Cracking the Alphabetic Code 142PLAN: Preview the Learning Outcomes 142VIGNETTE: First Grade Phonics Instruction 142Phonemic Awareness 146Phonemic Awareness Strategies 147Teaching Phonemic Awareness 147Assessing Children’s Phonemic Awareness 154Why Phonemic Awareness Is Important 155MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 5.1 155Phonics 155Phonics Concepts 156Teaching Phonics 160Assessing Students’ Phonics Knowledge 165The Role of Phonics in a Balanced Literacy Program 166MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 5.2 166Spelling 166Stages of Spelling Development 166Teaching Spelling 171Weekly Spelling Tests 175Assessing Students’ Spelling 177The Controversy About Spelling Instruction 178MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 5.3 179REVIEW: Assisting Students in Cracking the Alphabetic Code 179Evaluate & Reflect 180References 180  Chapter 6 Developing Fluent Readers and Writers 182Plan: Preview the Learning Outcomes 182VIGNETTE: High-Frequency Words 182Reading Fluency 186Automatic Reading 186Reading Speed 193Prosody 194Assessing Reading Fluency 195MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 6.1 197Writing Fluency 198Automatic Writing 198Writing Speed 199Writer’s Voice 200Assessing Writing Fluency 201MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 202Dysfluent Students 202Older Dysfluent Readers 203Older Dysfluent Writers 204Obstacles to Fluency 206MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 6.3 212REVIEW: Developing Fluent Readers and Writers 212Evaluate & Reflect 212References 213  Chapter 7 Expanding Academic Vocabulary 216PLAN: Preview the Learning Outcomes 216VIGNETTE: The Word Wizards Club 216Academic Vocabulary 220Three Tiers of Words 220Levels of Word Knowledge 222Word Consciousness 223MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 7.1 225Word-Study Concepts 225Multiple Meanings of Words 225Synonyms: Words With Similar Meanings 227Antonyms: Words That Mean the Opposite 227Homonyms: Words That Confuse 228Root Words and Affixes 229Etymologies: Word Histories 232Figurative Meanings 233MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 7.2 236Teaching Students to Unlock Word Meanings 236Word Walls 236Explicit Instruction 238Word-Study Activities 238Word-Learning Strategies 241Incidental Word Learning 243The Role of Oral Language 244Assessing Students’ Vocabulary Knowledge 245MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 7.3 247REVIEW: Expanding Students’ Academic Vocabulary 247Evaluate & Reflect 247References 248  Chapter 8 Promoting Comprehension: Reader Factors 250PLAN: Preview the Learning Outcomes 250VIGNETTE: Ms. Ali Teaches Comprehension Strategies 250What Is Comprehension 255Reader and Text Factors 256Text Complexity 256Prerequisites for Comprehension 258MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 8.1 259Comprehension Strategies 259Activating Background Knowledge 260Connecting 261Determining Importance 261Drawing Inferences 262Evaluating 263Monitoring 264Predicting 265Questioning 265Repairing 266Setting a Purpose 266Summarizing 266Visualizing 266Comprehension Skills 267MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 8.2 268Teaching Students About Reader Factors 268Explicit Instruction 269Developing Comprehension Through Reading 273Assessing Reader Factors 278MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 8.3 280Motivation 281Teachers’ Role 281Students’ Role 282How to Engage Students 283Assessing Motivation 284Comparing Capable and Less Capable Students 285MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 8.4 286REVIEW: Teaching About Reader Factors 287Evaluate & Reflect 287References 288  Chapter 9 Promoting Comprehension: Text Factors 290PLAN: Preview the Learning Outcomes 290VIGNETTE: Reading and Writing About Frogs 290Text Factors of Stories 294Formats of Stories 294Narrative Genres 295Elements of Story Structure 299Narrative Devices 304Looking at the Text Factors in a Story 306MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 9.1 306Text Factors of Nonfiction 306Nonfiction Genres 306Expository Text Structures 308Nonfiction Features 308Looking at the Text Factors in a Nonfiction Book 311MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 9.2 311Text Factors of Poetry 311Formats of Poetry Books 311Poetic Forms 313Poetic Devices 316Looking at the Text Factors in a Book of Poetry 317MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 9.3 317Teaching About Text Factors 317Mini-lessons 318Comprehension Strategies 318Reading and Writing Activities 319Assessing Text Factors 320MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 9.4 320REVIEW: Facilitating Students’ Comprehension of Text Factors 320Evaluate & Reflect 321References 321  PART THREE Organizing for Instruction 325  Chapter 10 Organizing for Instruction 328PLAN: Preview the Learning Outcomes 328VIGNETTE: A Yearlong Author Study 328Conducting Guided Reading Lessons 332Components 332Reading Strategies 333Instructional Materials 334Applying the Reading Process 334Managing Guided Reading 334MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 10.1 334Teaching With Basal Reading Programs 335Components 335Instructional Materials 337Applying the Reading Process 338Managing a Basal Reading Program 339MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 10.2 340Teaching With Literature Focus Units 340Steps in Developing a Unit 341Units Featuring a Picture Book 343Units Featuring a Novel 343Units Featuring a Genre 343Units Featuring an Author 345Managing Literature Focus Units 346MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 10.3 346Orchestrating Literature Circles 346Key Features of Literature Circles 346Implementing Literature Circles 350Using Literature Circles With Young Children 351Applying the Reading Process 351Managing Literature Circles 352MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 10.4 352Implementing Reading and Writing Workshop 353Reading Workshop 354Applying the Reading Process 358Writing Workshop 359Applying the Writing Process 361Managing a Workshop Classroom 362MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 10.5 363REVIEW: Organizing for Instruction 363Evaluate & Reflect 364References 364  Chapter 11 Differentiating for Success 366PLAN: Preview the Learning Outcomes 366VIGNETTE: Classroom Interventions 366Ways to Differentiate Instruction 371Grouping for Instruction 372Tiered Activities 374MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 11.1 384Struggling Readers and Writers 384Struggling Readers 384Struggling Writers 385High-Quality Instruction 385Interventions 389MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 11.2 394REVIEW: Differentiating Literacy Instruction 394Evaluate & Reflect 394References 395  PART FOUR Compendium of Instructional Procedures 435Anticipation Guides 436Book Talks 437Choral Reading 438Cloze Procedure 439Collaborative Books 440Double-Entry Journals 441Exclusion Brainstorming 442Grand Conversations 443Hot Seat 444Interactive Read-Alouds 445Interactive Writing 447KWL Charts 448Language Experience Approach 450Learning Logs 452Making Words 454Mini-lessons 455Open-Mind Portraits 456Possible Sentences 457Prereading Plan 458Question-Answer-Relationships 460  Chapter 12 Reading and Writing Across the Curriculum 398PLAN: Preview the Learning Outcomes 398VIGNETTE: Third Graders’ Multigenre Projects 398Learning Tools 402Reading to Learn 403Writing to Learn 405MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 12.1 408Demonstrating Learning 408Reports 409Essays 411Poems 411Multigenre Projects 413MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 12.2 415Content Area Textbooks 415Textbook Features 415Making Textbooks More Comprehensible 416Learning How to Study 418Why Aren’t Content Area Textbooks Enough? 421MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 12.3 421Thematic Units 421How to Develop a Unit 422A First Grade Unit on Trees 425A Fourth Grade Unit on Desert Ecosystems 425A Sixth Grade Unit on Ancient Egypt 426MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 12.4 426REVIEW: Reading and Writing Across the Curriculum 433Evaluate & Reflect 433References 434Quickwriting 461RAFT 463Readers Theatre 464Reading Logs 465Revising Groups 466Rubrics 468Running Records 470Semantic Feature Analysis 471Shared Reading 472Sketch-to-Stretch 473Story Boards 474Story Retelling 476Sustained Silent Reading 478Tea Party 479Think-Alouds 480Word Sorts 481Word Walls 483Glossary 487Index 493