Life of Stephen F. Austin, Founder of Texas, 1793-1836

Eugene C. Barker (1874–1956) was a professor of history at the University of Texas at Austin.

• CHAPTER I. In the Current of the Westward Movement. Ancestry and Migrations-Massachusetts-Connecticut-Professor Garrison’s Estimate of the Austins-Their National Importance in American History Unrecognized-Early Life of Moses Austin-His Introduction to Lead Mining-Migration to Philadelphia-To Richmond-Marriage-The Chiswell Lead Mines-Migration to Southwestern Virginia-Lack of Success-Hears of the Lead Mines in Missouri-Liberal Immigration Policy of Spain-Hardships of the Journey to Missouri-St. Louis-The Mines-Business Arrangements-Return Home-Removal to Missouri-Missouri in 1797. CHAPTER II. On the Missouri and Arkansas Frontier Austin’s Mine Claim Disputed-His Personal Characteristics-Improvements at the Mines-The Mines in 1804-The Effect of the Louisiana Purchase on Land Claims-On Immigration-Business-Austin’s Family Life-Education of Stephen F. Austin-Of the Younger Children-Financial Embarrassments-Effect of the War of 1812-The Bank of St. Louis-Stephen F. Austin in the Territorial Legislature-In Arkansas-His Equipment for His Career. CHAPTER III. The Inauguration of Texan Colonization The Conception of the Movement-Moses Austin at San Antonio-Bastrop Intervenes-The Government of Texas-Austin’s Return to Missouri-Hardships of Travel-Contracts with Emigrants-Death-Stephen F. Austin Carries On-Friendship of Joseph H. Hawkins-Recognized as His Father’s Successor-Reconnaissance and Selection of Site for the Colony-Condition of Texas in 1821-Austin’s Plan for Distributing Land-Popular Interest in His Grant-Partnership with Hawkins-Form of Contract with Colonists-First Settlers-Miscarriage of the Lively-Necessity for a Trip to Mexico-Austin’s Impressions of Mexico. CHAPTER IV. Austin in Mexico Review of Mexican Political History-The Situation as Austin Found It-Consideration of a General Colonization Law-Various Delays-First Draft of the Law-Other Applicants for Colonization Contracts-Austin Urges Congress to Confirm His Grant-His Plan for Regulating Indian Relations-Iturbide Proclaimed Emperor-European Applicants-Fears of the Expansion of the United States-Austin again Urges Congress to Act-Letters of Encouragement to the Settlers-Colonization Bill-Gutierrez de Lara--GÓmez FarÍas-Restriction of Settlement to Catholics-The Obstacle of Slavery-Zavala-Postponement of the Bill-Arrest of Deputies-Austin Appeals to Iturbide-The Bill again Postponed-Zavala Proposes Reform of Congress-Iturbide Dissolves Congress and Creates the Junta Instituyeme-Austin again Appeals for Action-The Junta and the Bill-Austin and the Slavery Article-Imperial Confirmation of Austin’s Grant-Fall of Iturbide-Austin’s Grant Confirmed by Congress-Austin’s Standing in Mexico-His Influence on Mexican Constitutional History-His Views on Public Education-His Connection with the Acta Constitutiva-His Views of Mexican Political Development-Austin’s Powers Defined-Effects of His Detention in Mexico. CHAPTER V. The Establishment of the First Colony Motives of Emigration-The Westward Movement-Cheap Land-Effect of the Cash System-Of the Panic of 1819-Reports of Migrations-The Opportune Opening of Texas-Widespread Interest in Texas-Queries of Immigrants-Status of Slavery and Religious Toleration-Immigration Checked by Austin’s Detention in Mexico-Numbers in Texas-Local Government-Austin’s Proclamations-Beginning of Friction over Land Fees-Indian Relations-Tonka was-Karankawas-Tahuacanos and Wacos-Militia Organization-Trouble over Land Fees-The Intent of the Law-Austin’s Understanding-The Rising Opposition-The Political Chief Annuls the Fees-Austin’s Protest and Defense of the Fees-Substitute for the Fees-His Public Services-Complaints of Unequal Land Grants-Buckner, Gaines, and Others-Austin’s Forbearance and Tact-Judicial System-Austin’s Civil and Criminal Code-Services of the Alcaldes-Austin’s Defense of the Judicial System against Interference of the Political Chief-Colonists Contribute Corn for Expenses of Congressman-Bastrop Represents Texas in Constituent Legislature-Establishment of Austin’s Capital, San Felipe de Austin-Progress of the Colony-Personal Losses. CHAPTER VI. The Extension of Anglo-American Colonization The National Colonization Law-The State Colonization Law-The Provision for Empresarios-Miscellaneous Provisions-The Public Services of Empresarios-Colonization Grants by the State-Austin Foresees Cotton Culture-Applies for a New Contract-Boundaries of His First Colony-The “Little Colony”-The “Coast Colony”-Grants to Burnet, Zavala, and Vehlein-The Form of Colonization Contracts-Rapid Immigration Despite Mexico’s Attitude toward Slavery and Lack of Religious Toleration-Austin’s Colony the Goal of Most Immigrants-Its Development-Sources of Immigration-Procedure in Obtaining Land-Fees-Exclusion of Bad Characters by Austin-His Administrative Duties and General Influence-Land System-Judicial System-Relations with Prominent Mexicans-Local Government-The Land Commissioner-Growing Prestige of Austin among the Colonists and the Reasons for It-The Indian Nuisance Ended-Personal Traits. CHAPTER VII. The Fredonian Rebellion The Haden Edwards Grant-The Spanish Settlement of Nacogdoches-The Problem of the Old Inhabitants-Local Government-Edwards Requires Proof of Land Titles-The Policy of the Government toward the Squatters-Edwards’s Lack of Tact-Opposition of the Old Inhabitants-Edwards’s Justification of His Policy-Boundary Conflict with Austin’s Colony-Austin’s Blunt Advice-A Local Election Controversy-The Political Chief Warns Edwards-Edwards Yields under Protest-Rumors of Revolt-Increasing Friction-Austin’s Advice-The Governor Annuls Edwards’s Contract and Orders His Expulsion-Kangaroo Court at Nacogdoches-Austin Attempts to Stay the Revolution and to Soothe the Authorities-The Border Settlers Remain Loyal to the Government-The Cherokees-Austin’s Colony Supports the Government-Bean Prevents Spread of Revolution-Austin’s Services-Suppression of the Revolt-Austin’s Justification. CHAPTER VIII. The Struggle for Stabilizing Laws Austin Compares His Labor with that of a Farmer Improving Virgin Land-Statement of Reforms and Improvements Essential to Prosperity-Mexican Tariff System-Exemption of the Colonists-Legalization of the Port of Galveston-Austin Urges Coasting Trade with Mexico and Cotton Trade with Europe-Concessions Needed to Bring This About-Practical Opposition to Coasting Trade by Mexican Port Officers-Rapid Development of Trade with the United States-Establishment of Constitutional Local Government-The First Election-Functions of the Officers-The Jurisdiction of the Ayuntamiento-Austin’s Continued Responsibility-Need of Judicial System-Austin’s Efforts to Obtain One-Defects of the System Provided by the Constitution-The Holtham Case-Seth Ingram and H. H. League-Origin of the First Homestead Law-Austin Proposes a Law to Protect Debtors-Correspondence with Mexican Statesmen-Passage of the Law-Its Beneficent Effect-Austin Dreams of a New Economic System in which Credit Rests Solely on Personal Character-Correspondence with Edward Livingston-Slavery-The Mexican Attitude-Austin’s Changing Views on Slavery-The Federal Law of July, 1824-Austin Begs Exemption from Its Operation for the First Colony-He Outlines a Bill for the State Legislature Allowing Introduction from the United States until 1840-And Providing for Gradual Emancipation by Peonage Contracts with Slaves-Austin Petitions Legislature against Emancipation by State Constitution-Brown Austin Goes to Saltillo to Lobby-Article 13 Recognizes Existing Slavery, but Forbids Further Introduction-Machinery for Its Operation-Austin Moves to Legalize Peonage Contracts between Immigrants and Their Slaves-The Passage of the Law, and Its Operation-Austin Combines Defense of Slavery with Vision of Agricultural Progress-Guerrero’s Emancipation Decree-The Political Chief Withholds Publication in Texas until Petition for Exemption Can Be Filed-Excitement of the Texans-Austin’s Calm Determination-Guerrero Withdraws the Decree for Texas-Austin Urges William H. Wharton to Settle in Texas-Returning Confidence-Great Immigration-Austin’s Reasons for Advocating Restriction of Slavery after Passage of the Law of April 6, 1830-Really Feared Slavery-Hope of European Immigration-But the Colonists Refused to Follow Him-Austin then Turned to Support Views of the Colonists-Explanation of His Apparent Instability-Want of Religious Toleration-Caused Little Active Discontent but an Obstacle to Immigration-Austin Expected Liberalization of the Government to Bring Toleration-His Cautious Treatment of the Subject-Austin’s Personal Religion-His Promotion of Education-Efforts to Obtain Schools. CHAPTER IX. Austin and His Work as Seen By Himself Explanation of His Policy-His Love for Texas and His Faith in Its Future-His Feeling of Obligation to the Colonists and His Loyalty to Mexico-His Influence with the Settlers in Harmonizing Differences-His Defense of the Local Government against Ill-informed Criticism-The Wear and Tear of the Years-His Confidence in the Gratitude of the Colonists-The Policy of Loyalty and Aloofness toward Mexico-His Understanding of Mexican Character-Difficulty of Remaining Aloof after 1830-Silence and Tact-His Policy Arouses Criticism of the Impatient Radicals-Map of Texas-Payment of Old Debts-George Tennille Collects on New Madrid Speculations-Anthony Butler’s Claims-The Hawkins Heirs-Lovelace and Wavell-Personal Philosophy. CHAPTER X. The Law of April 6, 1830 Foundation of the Law in Fear of American Expansion-This Fear Sharpened by Boundary Negotiations of Adams and Jackson-And by Newspaper Forecasts of the Purchase of Texas-Speculations in Texas Lands-Austin’s Condemnation of the Speculators-Poinsett’s Unpopularity in Mexico-TerÁn the Real Instigator of the Law of April 6-His Recommendations-Military Occupation of Texas-Counter-colonization by Mexicans-AlamÁn’s Iniciativa-Articles Ten and Eleven-TerÁn Disapproves-Austin’s Protest against the Law-Letters to Bustamante and TerÁn-His Argument that Immigrants to His Colony Were Not Excluded-The Government Accepts His Interpretation-Rapid Immigration-Austin’s Efforts to Forestall Popular Excitement over the Law-His Editorials in the Texas Gazette-But He Warns the Government of Its 111 Effects-Military Commandant on the Frontier Checks Immigration-Austin’s Efforts to Remove the Obstacle-Issues Certificates in Blank-Effect of the Law on Other Colonization Enterprises-The Galveston Bay and Texas Land Company-The Nashville Company or Robertson Colony-Austin Declines to Become Involved with These Companies-Neutrality-Execution of the Military Provisions of the Law-Garrisons in Texas-Failure of the Counter-colonization Feature. CHAPTER XI. The Robertson Colony Controversy Preliminary Summary-The “Texas Association” or Nashville Company Sends Leftwich to Mexico to Apply for a Grant-Leftwich Gets the Contract in His Own Name-Location West of Austin’s Colony-Welcomed by Austin-Leftwich Transfers the Grant to the Company-Felix Robertson Inspects die Territory-Sterling C. Robertson Accompanies Him-Another Inspection-The Company Seeks Recognition from the Government-Requests Austin’s Assistance-H. H. League-Austin Presents the Company’s Petition and Induces the Government to Grant It-But the Company Remains Inactive-Testimony of Amos Edwards-Of William H. Wharton-The Company Interested in Speculation, not Colonization-Sterling C. Robertson Obtains a Sub-Contract-Robertson’s Arrival in Texas-Contract Annulled by the Law of April 6, 1830-Austin Intercedes for Robertson’s Companions-Presents Robertson’s Petition to Governor-Finds Governor Disposed to Re-grant the Territory to a French Company-History of the French Application-Austin in Partnership with Williams Applies for a New Grant Including the Annulled Nashville Company Grant-Robertson’s Natural Resentment-But Austin Helpless to Aid Him and Acted for the Interest of Texas-Robertson Prepares to Attack the Validity of the Grant to Austin and Williams-Ex Parte Testimony to Prove the Contract Not Affected by the Law of April 6, 1830-Abuse of Austin during His Absence on a Mission to Mexico-Robertson Asks for Annulment of Austin’s Grant and Reinstatement of His Own-Vituperative Statements to Governor and Legislature-Examination of the Facts-The Governor Reinstates Robertson’s Contract, Austin Having Effected the Repeal of the Law of April 6, 1830-Williams’s Ineffective Efforts to Combat Robertson-Robertson Announces Restoration of His Contract with Further Abuse of Austin-Williams Secures Reversal of the Case, but Robertson Refuses to Obey-The Number of Colonists Introduced by Robertson-Location of Eleven League Grants in the Colony and Their Subsequent Unfortunate History-Effect of This on Austin’s Memory-The Purity of His Motives. CHAPTER XII. Popular Disturbances of 1832 The Military Post at Anahuac-TerÁn’s Instructions to Bradburn-History of Squatter Settlements in East Texas-Their Origin-Those on San Jacinto Early Incorporated in Austin’s Colony-The Others Assured of Land Titles, but Often Disappointed-Padilla’s Arrest-Madero Stopped by Bradburn from Issuing Titles-Resentment of the Settlers-Austin Advises Patience-Friction over Customs Duties-George Fisher, Collector-His Self-Importance Arouses Unnecessary Opposition-Trouble at Brazoria-TerÁn Reprimands Austin-But Removes Fisher-Austin Leaves Texas to Attend Legislature at Saltillo--His Anxiety and Advice: “Fidelity to Mexico”-Bradburn’s Imprudence-The Attack on Anahuac-Disavowed by the People-Battle of Velasco-Civil War in Mexico-Austin Visits TerÁn-His Efforts to Forestall Friction in Texas-Hears of the Outbreak-Explains the Situation to TerÁn-Comments on Mexican Political Parties-Letter to Santa Anna-Accompanied Colonel Mexia to Texas-Driven by Circumstances from His Policy of Aloofness-Declares for Santa Anna’s Republican Party-Expulsion of Federal Troops from TerÁn’s Garrisons-The State Declares for Santa Anna. CHAPTER XIII. The Conventions of 1832 and 1833 Calling the Convention of 1832-Meeting and Work-Austin President-Petition for Tariff Exemption-For Amendment of Law of April 6, 1830-Relations with the Indians-Titles for East Texas “Squatters”-Primary Schools-Separation from Coahuila-William H. Wharton Elected to Present the Petitions to Government, but Does Not Go-Organization of a Central Committee-Mexican Inhabitants of San Antonio Refuse to Participate in the Convention-Political Chief Demands Repudiation of the Convention and Some Municipalities Obey-Austin Labors for Unity-Correspondence and Travel-Induces Mexicans at San Antonio to Present Vigorous Petition for Reforms-Austin Tells How It Was Done-Hopes to Induce Mexicans to Join in Subsequent Convention if Reforms Are Withheld-Precipitate Calling of Second Convention Defeated this Plan-He Still Labors for Unity-The Work of the Convention-Austin’s Draft of Reasons for Calling the Convention-Provisional State Constitution-Petition for its Approval-Petition for Repeal of Law of April 6, 1830-Austin Elected to Present Demands to Government-His Attitude toward Formation of a State-His Reflections on Independence-Opposed to Annexation to United States-Did He Begin to Change His Mind in 1832?-His Mission to Mexico-Work on the Way at San Antonio and Matamoras. CHAPTER XIV. The Mission to Mexico: Arrest Presentation of the Texan Case-The Right to State Government-Statistics-Action of the Government Delayed by Cholera Epidemic-Austin Has Premonitory Symptoms-Alternation of Hope and Despondency-Advises Texans to Organize Provisional State Government-Ayuntamiento of San Antonio Causes His Arrest-He Labors to Prevent Excitement in Texas-His Letters-Frank Statement to Mexican Officials-Solitary Confinement-Mexican Judicial Procedure-Austin Expects the Texans to Petition for His Release-Desperation-Enemies in Texas-Mission for His Relief-Release on Bond-Waiting for the Amnesty Law-“Explanation Concerning Texas”-The Chihuahua Road and Santa FÉ Trade-The Fact about Enemies in Texas-Austin Convinced of Necessity of Secession. CHAPTER XV. Texas During Austin’s Absence Subsidence of Excitement-Cholera, Floods, and Malaria-Calmness Following Austin’s Arrest-Liberal Reforms by the Legislature-Extension of Local Government-Reform of Judicial System-Almonte’s Inspection of Texas-His Recommendations to the Government-Noticia Estadistica sobre Tejas-Noriega’s Mission to Monclova-Civil War between Monclova and Saltillo Interrupts State Government-Another Convention Proposed in Texas-Opposition of Austin’s Friends Successful-Continued Confusion at the Capital-Waste of Public Lands-Speculators-Clash between State and Federal Authorities in which Texans Sympathize with Federal Government-Dissolution of State Government-Santa Anna Establishing Centralized Government and Destroying Federal System-Revival of Custom Houses in Texas-Clashes at Anahuac-Travis Attacks the Garrison There-Action Disavowed by Public Meetings-Calling of a Consultation to Decide on a Policy. CHAPTER XVI. Austin Again at the Helm: Beginning of the Revolution. Popular Relief at Austin’s Return-His “Keynote” Speech Approves the Consultation-He Works for a Full Representation-Intimate View of His Quarters-His Recognition of the Critical Situation and of its Possible End-The Gonzales Cannon-Austin Heads the Volunteer Army-The Army at San Antonio-The Consultation Meets and Elects Austin, Archer, and Wharton Commissioners to the United States-Declaration for the Constitution of 1824-Austin’s Influence-The Mexican Liberals-Austin’s Uncertainty-Final Advice for Independence. CHAPTER XVII. The Independence of Texas: The End of the Voyage Sympathy for Texas in the United States-The Commissioners Obtain Loans in New Orleans-Itinerary through the United States-Inability to Negotiate Texan Bonds-Proposal to Nicholas Biddle-Burnet’s Neglect of Commissioners Defeats Efforts for Recognition of Texan Independence by United States-He appoints a New Commission-Austin Returns to Texas-Induces Santa Anna to Appeal to President Jackson for Intervention-Tries to Commit General Gaines to Intervention-Report on the Mission to the United States-Austin’s Colleagues Urge Him to Become a Candidate for the Presidency-The Campaign-Austin Charged with Complicity in Williams’s Land Speculations-His Defeat-His Correspondence with Williams-Reconciliation-Accepts Office of Secretary of State-Plan to Use Santa Anna to Obtain Intervention of the United States-Instructions to William H. Wharton, Agent to the United States-Austin’s Unexpected Death. CHAPTER XVIII. Epilogue: Significance and Personality CHAPTER XIX. Bibliography Index