Laws Protecting Animals and Ecosystems

PAUL A. REES is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Environmental and Life Sciences at the University of Salford, UK. His teaching and research interests include the behaviour and welfare of animals in zoos (especially elephants), particularly the importance of policy and legislation in influencing the pivotal role of zoos in the conservation of biodiversity and the welfare of animals living in zoos. He is the author of Urban Environments and Wildlife Law: A manual for Sustainable Development (Blackwell, 2002), An Introduction to Zoo Biology and Management (Wiley- Blackwell, 2011), A Dictionary of Zoo Biology and Animal Management (Wiley-Blackwell, 2013) and Studying Captive Animals (Wiley-Blackwell, 2015).

• About the author 8What is this book for? 9Acknowledgements 10Explanatory notes 11The meaning of some terms used in the law 12A note on sex 13Abbreviations and AcronymsGlossaryIntroduction 14PART I – Legal principles and concepts15Chapter 1 Legal systems; national, European and international1.1 Legal jurisdictions 151.2 National laws 151.2.1 What is national law? 151.2.2 The process of enacting new national laws 161.2.3 Delegated legislation 171.2.4 Looking for national laws 191.2.5 Federal systems of law 191.3 The European Union and European law 191.3.1 Principles 191.3.2 Institutions 201.3.3 EU Primary legislation 211.3.4 EU Secondary legislation 211.3.5 The role of the European Court of Justice (ECJ) 231.4 International law 241.4.1 Sources of international law 241.4.2 Principles 241.4.3 Titles 251.4.4 How a treaty is formed 251.4.5 Structure of international treaties 261.4.6 Soft law 331.4.7 Memoranda of understanding 361.4.8 International institutions 361.5 Case law and law reports 381.5.1 How are legal cases named? 391.6 Amending the law 401.7 Where to find the law 411.7.1 Legal encyclopaedias and websites 411.7.2 Where to find UK laws 421.7. 3 Where to find US laws 421.8 Reading legislation 431.9 Legal journals 452. Legal principles462.1 Legal personality, locus standi and ultra vires 462.1.1 Legal personality 462.1.2 Locus standi and pressure groups 462.1.3 Judicial review and ultra vires 482.2 Ethics, precaution, equity, and presumptions of guilt 482.2.1 Environmental ethics and animal rights 482.2.2 Intrinsic value 512.2.3 Precautionary principle 522.2.4 Rights of future generations: inter-generational equity 542.2.5 Strict liability and the burden of proof in wildlife offences 55Chapter 3 Beliefs, ethics and history583.1 Totems, creation myths and fadies – the protection of animals and ecosystems by ancient beliefs 583.2 Ancient beliefs as a threat to wildlife 603.3 Animals and religion 613.4 A short and incomplete history of the laws protecting animals, plants and ecosystems 62Chapter 4 Ownership of, and responsibility for, animals and access to wild places684.1 Who owns wildlife? 684.2 Theft of wildlife 724.3 Who is the keeper of an animal? 724.4 Liability for the action of animals. 734.5 Rights of access to open land and water 75Chapter 5 Definitions of different categories of living things785.1 Introduction 785.2 The binomial system of nomenclature 785.3 Definitions of a species? 805.4 What’s in a name? Problems with definitions 815.5 What is an animal? 825.6 What is a plant? 835.7 Defining habitat types 845.8 Definitions of wildlife and types of organisms 855.8.1 Wildlife and nature 855.8.2 Wild bird 865.8.3 Fishes 875.8.4 Game and furbearers 885.8.5 Parts, trophies and specimens 905.8.6 Alien species and animal and plant pests (weeds) 915.8.7 Captive and domestic animals 935.8.8 Dangerous animals and species 935.8.9 Farm animals and livestock 945.8.10 Companion animals, assistance animals and working dogs 955.8.11 Case law and definitions 97PART II Mechanisms and enforcement98Chapter 6  Legal mechanisms I: the protection of wild animals and plants986.1 Introduction 986.2 The species approach to wildlife conservation 986.2.1 Creating new organisations to protect specific taxa 986.2.2 Listing protected species – schedules, appendices and annexes 996.2.3 Problems with hybrids 1036.3 Killing and harassment of animals and plant exploitation 1046.3.1 Prohibition of taking, killing and capturing wild animals 1046.3.2 Taking of females and their young 1056.3.3 Protection from disturbance and harassment 1086.3.4 Protection of breeding and sheltering places 1106.3.5 Protection of birds’ eggs 1126.3.6 Prohibition on picking, uprooting etc. of plants 1126.3.7 Exemptions and the licensing of otherwise prohibited activities 1146.4 Regulation of the methods and timing of taking, killing and capturing 1166.4.1 Regulation of methods 1166.4.2 Close seasons and emergency orders 1256.5 Sustainable use of resources – hunting, fishing and bioprospecting 1276.5.1 Prohibition of the exploration of biological resources 1286.5.2 Use of resources by indigenous peoples 1306.5.3 No take zones 1356.5.4 Exclusive economic zones 1366.5.5 Restrictions on the size of animals that may be taken 1376.5.6 Sport hunting 139Chapter 7 Legal mechanisms II: the protection of habitats and ecosystems1457.1 Defining ecosystems and habitats 1457.2 The protection of the Earth’s ecosystem and sites of global importance 1457.2.1 World Heritage Sites 1457.2.2 Biosphere reserves 1467.2.3 Global protection of biodiversity 1467.2.4 The protection of the global ecosystem: climate change 1477.2.5 The protection of polar areas 1487.2.6 Protection of freshwater habitats 1497.2.7 Protection of marine waters 1527.2.8 The protection of forests, trees and hedgerows 1547.3 Protected areas and the protection of migratory routes 1597.3.1 Privately owned nature reserves 1607.3.2 The establishment of protected areas 1617.3.3 Prohibition of certain activities in protected areas and forests 1777.3.4 Protection of migration routes 1817.3.5 Powers to acquire land 1837.3.6 Conservation easements 1837.3.7 Is there a need for airspace reserves? 184Chapter 8 Legal mechanisms III: restoration, trade and conflicts1868.1 The restoration of populations and ecosystems 1868.1.1 Reintroduction of animals to the wild 1868.1.2  Recovery plans, action plans and abatement plants 1928.1.3 Restoration of rare and threatened habitats 1948.1.4 Role of ex-situ conservation 1958.1.5 Conservation of biodiversity – duty imposed on government departments etc. 1968.1.6 Identification of animals bred in captivity 1978.1.7 Prohibition on the introduction, spreading or release of exotic and pest species 1978. 2 Restrictions on the trade and exhibition of protected species 2018.2.1 The historical importance of wildlife as symbols of power and friendship 2018.2.2 Restrictions on transportation and trade 2018.2.3 Restriction on the exhibition of rare species 2078.2.4 EIA in the USA: the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969 2088.2.5 Product labelling 2098.3 Problem animals and human-animal conflict 2128.3.1 Problem animals and food 2128.3.2 Confining domestic and problem animals 2148.3.3 Problem animal control 2168.3.4 Reduction of human-animal conflict 220Chapter 9 Legal mechanisms IV: planning, knowledge, funding and enforcement2229.1 Planning policy and nature conservation 2229.1.1 Requirement for an Environmental Impact Assessment 2229.1.2 EIA in the European Union 2229.2 Gathering and disseminating information 2249.2.1 Identification and monitoring of wildlife 2249.2.2 Public education and awareness 2259.2.3 Transfer of knowledge and exchange of information 2269.2.4 Promoting research 2269.3 Funding and legislation 2279.3.1 Transfer of funding between rich and poor states 2289.3.2 Allocation of government funding for conservation 2289.3.3 Agricultural payments 2309.3.4 Fund raising for conservation 2319.3.5 Tax benefits for conservation 2329.3.6 Improving legislation and its enforcement 234Chapter 10 Animal welfare and the law23410.1 Introduction 23510.2.1 Defining cruelty 23610.2.2 The five freedoms 23710.2.3 Animal cruelty and violence towards humans 23810.2.4 Provision of veterinary treatment 23810.3 Animal rights legal cases 24010.4 Legal mechanisms used to protect and control domestic and captive animals 24110.4.1 Limitation on, or prohibition of, excessive physical activity and types of restraint 24110.4.2 Provision of sanctuaries for retired working and laboratory animals 24410.4.3 Limitation on feeding methods 24510.4.4 Prohibition of mutilation and other cruel practices 24510.4.5 Regulation of animal experiments 24610.4.6 Requirement for owners of animal to provide proper care and accommodation 24910.4.7 Provision of public education 25510.4.8 Licensing of premises used for keeping, breeding, boarding, selling and exhibiting animals 25510.4.9 Control and licensing of domestic animals 26010.4.10 Prohibition of animal fighting 27010.4.11 Protection of animals used in entertainment and gambling 27210.4.12 Regulation of the transportation and movement of animals 27710.4.13 Control of diseased wild animals 28310.4.14 Humane and religious slaughter 28410.4.15 Bestiality 286Chapter 11 Crime detection and law enforcement28711.1 Wildlife crime reporting 28711.2 Wildlife crime forensics 28711.3 Criminal and civil sanctions 28811.4 Liability of employers, principals and bodies corporate 28911.5 Inspectors, animal control officers, water bailiffs and other specialist officers 29111.5.1 Inspectors and other specialist officers 29111.5.2 Forest officers 29511.5.3 Wildlife wardens and rangers 29511.5.4 Specialist conservation and wildlife police 29711.5.5 International police and wildlife crime organisations 30011.5.6 The role of non-governmental organisations in enforcing animal cruelty laws 30111.5.7 NGOs and enforcement 30211.5.8 Statutory nature conservation agencies 30311.6 Penalties 30511.6.1 Death 30511.6.2 Imprisonment 30611.6.3 Fines 30711.6.4 Ban on keeping animals/ seizure of animals 30811.6.5 Closure of facilities keeping animals 30911.6.6 Seizure or forfeiture of firearms, vehicles, equipment and other items 31011.6.7 Injunction 31111.6.8 Restoration of ecosystems 31111.7 The enforcement of international law 31311.7.1 International Court of Justice (ICJ) and case law 31311.7.2 International sanctions 314Part III – Major national, European and international laws which protect animals, plants and ecosystems316Chapter 12 National laws31612.1 United Kingdom 31612.2 United States of America 32312.3 Canada 32512.4 Australia 325Australian state laws 32612.5 New Zealand 32612.6 India 32712.7 Kenya 32712.8 Nigeria 32812.9 South Africa 32812.10 Tanzania 32812.11 Thailand 328Chapter 13 European laws32813.1 Directives and Regulations 32913.2 EU case law 332Chapter 14 International laws334Appendix I 338Appendix II. A chronology of major legislation affecting animals and nature conservation in the UK 342Appendix III. A chronology of major legislation affecting animal and nature conservation law in the United States of America 346References 347Table of laws and cases 355Legislation 355NATIONAL LAWS 355EUROPEAN LAW 365INTERNATIONAL LAWS 367CASE LAW 369RESOLUTIONS AND NOTIFICATIONS 370Index 376