Introduction to Waste Management

Syed E. Hasan is Professor Emeritus in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Missouri-Kansas City (UMKC), USA. He is the author of the award-winning textbook Geology and Hazardous Waste Management and is the recipient of two Senior Fulbright Scholar awards. Dr. Hasan is a Fellow of the Geological Society of America, senior member of the Association of Environmental & Engineering Geologists, and a member of the American Geophysical Union.

• Foreword xviiPreface xixAcknowledgments xxii1 Introduction 11.1 The Beginning 11.1.1 Historical Perspectives 21.2 Importance of Waste Management in Sustainability, Ecological Health, and Climate Change 41.2.1 Waste Management and Environmental Sustainability 61.2.2 Waste Management and Human and Ecological Health 81.2.3 Waste Management and Climate Change 91.3 Overview of Waste Generation in the United States and Other Countries 101.4 Future Perspectives on Waste Management 121.5 Summary 13Study Questions 14References 15Supplementary Readings 15Web Resources 15Acronyms/Symbols 162 Essentials of Geology, Geotechnics, and Toxicology 172.1 Introduction 172.2 Basic Concepts 182.3 Geologic Cycles 272.3.1 Rock Cycle 272.3.2 Water (Hydrologic) Cycle 292.3.3 Tectonic Cycle 302.3.3.1 Significance of Plate Movement 332.3.4 Geochemical Cycle 332.3.5 Climate Cycle 332.4 Earth Materials 332.4.1 Rocks as Earth Materials 342.4.1.1 Igneous Rocks 342.4.1.2 Sedimentary Rocks 342.4.1.3 Metamorphic Rocks 342.4.1.4 Engineering Properties and Behavior of Rock Materials 342.4.2 Soils as Earth Material 352.4.3 Soil Formation 362.4.3.1 Soil Profile 372.4.3.2 Soil Texture 372.5 Index Properties of Soils 382.5.1 Void Ratio, Porosity, and Degree of Saturation 392.5.2 Density 402.5.3 Moisture (Water) Content 402.5.4 Grain- Size Distribution 412.5.5 Atterberg Limits 412.5.6 Permeability 442.6 Soil Classification Systems 452.6.1 Soil Classification 452.7 Hydrogeology 472.7.1 Groundwater Occurrence 482.7.2 Types of Aquifers 492.7.3 Groundwater Movement 50Essentials of Toxicology 522.8 Introduction 522.8.1 Toxicity and Toxicity Rating 532.8.2 Types of Toxic Effects 532.9 Dose–Response Relationship 552.9.1 Hypersensitivity and Hyposensitivity 572.10 Exposure Paths of Toxicants to Humans 582.10.1 Ingestion 582.10.2 Inhalation 582.10.3 Dermal Contact 582.10.4 Injection 582.11 Teratogenesis, Mutagenesis, and Carcinogenesis 582.11.1 Teratogenesis 582.11.2 Mutagenesis 592.11.3 Carcinogenesis 592.12 Assessment of Health Risks of Hazardous Waste 592.13 Summary 60Study Questions 60References 62Supplemental Readings 63Web Resources 63Acronyms/Symbols 633 Environmental Laws 643.1 History and Evolution of Environmental Laws in the United States 643.1.1 Foundation and Strength of US Environmental Laws 663.2 Important Environmental Laws 663.2.1 The Rivers and Harbors Act 693.2.2 The Atomic Energy Act 703.2.3 Solid Waste Disposal Act 703.2.4 Resource Recovery Act 703.2.5 National Environmental Policy Act 703.2.6 Occupational Safety and Health Act 703.2.7 Federal Water Pollution Control (Renamed Clean Water) Act 713.2.8 Clean Air Act 713.2.9 Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuary Act 733.2.10 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act 733.2.11 Safe Drinking Water Act 733.2.12 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 803.2.13 Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act 803.2.14 Uranium Mill Tailings and Radiation Control Act 813.2.15 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act 813.2.16 Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act 813.2.17 Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments Act 833.2.18 Underground Storage Tanks Act 833.2.19 Toxic Substance Control Act 833.2.20 Low- Level Radioactive Waste Policy Act 843.2.21 Nuclear Waste Policy Act 843.2.22 Emergency Planning and Community Right- to- Know Act 843.2.23 Medical Waste Tracking Act 863.2.24 Indoor Radon Abatement Act 863.2.25 Pollution Prevention Act 863.3 Summary 86Study Questions 87References 88Web Resources 88Acronyms/Symbols 884 Municipal Solid Waste 894.1 Historical Perspective 894.1.1 The United States Public Health Service and the American Public Works Association 904.2 Introduction 914.2.1 Environmental and Health Impacts from Mismanagement of Municipal Solid Waste 934.3 US Laws Regulating Solid Waste Management 1024.3.1 The Solid Waste Disposal Act 1024.3.2 The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 1024.4 Source, Composition, and Quantity of MSW 1034.4.1 MSW Composition 1034.4.1.1 Special Wastes 1064.4.2 Quantity of MSW 1064.5 Collection and Disposal of MSW 1074.5.1 MSW Disposal 1074.5.2 Land Disposal 1094.5.3 Incineration and Waste- to- Energy Conversion 1104.5.4 Composting 1124.6 Physical and Chemical Properties of MSW 1124.6.1 Moisture Content 1134.6.2 Density 1144.6.3 Volume Reduction 1144.6.4 Compaction Ratio 1154.6.5 Permeability 1154.6.6 Energy (Heat) Content 1154.6.7 Field Capacity 1164.6.8 Particle Size Distribution 1164.7 Landfill 1184.7.1 Types of Landfills 1194.7.2 Daily Operation of a Sanitary Landfill 1204.7.3 Landfill Leachate 1214.7.4 Landfill Gases 1234.7.4.1 Landfill Gas Formation 1234.7.5 Landfill Design 1254.7.5.1 Landfill Siting Restrictions 1264.7.6 Landfill Design Criteria 1274.7.6.1 Leachate Collection and Removal System 1294.7.6.2 Landfill Gas Collection and Extraction System 1304.7.7 Landfill Area Requirement 1314.7.8 Landfill Site Selection 1324.7.8.1 Defining Purpose and Scope 1324.7.8.2 Office Study and Data Collection 1324.7.8.3 Field Investigations 1334.8 Bioreactor Landfill 1344.9 Waste Audit 1364.9.1 Waste Audit Methodology 1364.10 Summary 138Study Questions 138References 140Supplemental Reading 142Web Resources 143Acronyms/Symbols 1435 Hazardous Waste 1455.1 Introduction 1455.1.1 Hazardous Substance and Hazardous Waste 1465.1.2 Environmental and Health Problems 1465.2 US Laws Regulating Hazardous Waste 1555.2.1 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 1555.2.2 Toxic Substances Control Act 1565.2.3 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act 1565.2.4 Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments 1575.2.5 Underground Storage Tanks Act 1575.2.6 Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act 1585.2.7 Emergency Planning and Community- Right- to- Know Act 1585.2.8 Frank R. Lautenberg Chemical Safety for the 21st Century Act (Lautenberg Chemical Safety Act) 1595.3 Definition and Classification of Hazardous Waste 1595.3.1 The United States Environmental Protection Agency Criteria 1595.3.1.1 Listed Waste 1605.3.1.2 Characteristic Waste 1615.3.2 EU’s Classification of Hazardous Waste 1655.4 Sources and Generators of Hazardous Waste 1665.4.1 Categories of Hazardous Waste Generators 1695.5 Storage and Transportation of Hazardous Waste 1705.5.1 Hazardous Waste Storage 1715.5.2 Hazardous Waste Transportation 1715.6 Treatment of Hazardous Waste 1725.6.1 Hazardous Waste Treatment Methods 1735.6.1.1 Neutralization 1735.6.1.2 Sorption 1735.6.1.3 Precipitation 1745.6.1.4 Reverse Osmosis 1745.6.1.5 Stripping 1755.7 Hazardous Waste Treatment and Disposal 1755.7.1 Land Disposal 1765.7.1.1 Regulatory Aspects of Land Disposal 1765.7.2 Land Disposal Restrictions 1765.7.2.1 Key Provisions of the LDR Program 1775.7.2.2 Land Treatment/Disposal 1775.7.3 Secure Landfill 1785.7.3.1 Waste Piles 1785.7.3.2 Surface Impoundments 1805.7.3.3 Mine Storage/Disposal 1815.7.3.4 Deep Well Injection 1815.7.4 Thermal Treatment Methods 1825.7.4.1 Incineration 1825.7.4.2 Pyrolysis 1835.7.4.3 Other Thermal Destruction Methods 1835.7.5 Biological Methods 1845.7.6 Miscellaneous Disposal Methods 1845.7.6.1 Permeable Reactive Barriers 1845.7.6.2 Vitrification 1865.7.6.3 Wetlands 1865.7.6.4 Combination Methods 1875.7.7 Sustainable (Green) Remediation 1905.7.7.1 Triad Approach 1905.8 Superfund Program and Cleanup of Hazardous Waste Sites in the United States 1915.8.1 Remedial Actions under RCRA and CERCLA 1925.9 Summary 193Study Questions 194References 195Supplementary Reading 196Web Resources 196Acronyms/Symbols 1976 Medical Waste 1986.1 Introduction and Historical Context 1986.1.1 Definition 2006.2 Nature, Source, and Quantity of Medical Waste 2026.2.1 Nature of Medical Waste 2026.2.2 Sources of Medical Waste 2046.2.3 Wastes from Major Health Care Establishments 2066.2.4 Quantity of Medical Waste 2076.3 Hazards Associated with Regulated Medical Waste 2106.4 Treatment and Disposal of Medical Waste 2166.4.1 Methods of Treatment and Disposal of Regulated Medical Waste 2176.4.1.1 Thermal Treatment 2176.4.1.2 Biological Treatment 2206.4.1.3 Chemical Treatment 2206.4.1.4 Radiation- based Treatment 2216.5 The COVID- 19 Pandemic and Its Impact on Waste Management 2216.5.1 The Great Pandemic of 2020 and Medical Waste 2226.5.2 COVID- 19 Waste 2256.5.2.1 Determination of the Quantity of COVID- 19 Waste 2256.5.3 Reducing COVID- 19 Waste Quantity 2276.5.4 Waste Management Industry’s Response to COVID- 19 2286.6 Summary 228Study Questions 229References 230Supplementary Reading 232Web Resources 232Acronyms/Symbols 2337 Nuclear Waste 2347.1 Introduction 2347.1.1 Nuclear Waste 2357.1.2 Types of Nuclear Waste 2357.1.3 High- Level Wastes: SNF and HLW 2357.1.4 Nuclear Waste Management 2377.1.5 Early Years of Nuclear Waste Management in the USA 2377.2 Basics of Nuclear Science 2387.2.1 Radioactive Elements 2387.2.2 Radioactive Minerals 2397.2.3 Nuclear Fission and Electric Power Generation 2397.2.4 Energy Potential of Radioactive Elements and Use of Nuclear Energy 2407.2.4.1 Nuclear Energy for Electric Power Generation 2427.2.4.2 Other Uses of Nuclear Energy 2457.3 Radioactivity, Natural and Induced Radiation, and Half- Life 2467.3.1 Radioactivity 2467.3.2 Radiotoxicity 2477.3.3 Radiation Exposure and Acceptable Radiation Dose 2487.3.4 Induced Radioactivity 2497.3.5 Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials and Technologically Enhanced Radioactive Materials 2507.3.6 Radioactive Decay and Half- life 2517.4 Nuclear Waste 2527.4.1 Sources of Nuclear Waste 2537.4.2 Nuclear (Uranium) Fuel Cycle 2547.4.2.1 Spent Fuel Reprocessing 2567.4.3 Waste Forms and Packaging 2567.4.4 Nuclear Waste Management 2577.4.5 Nuclear Waste Classification 2587.4.5.1 The IAEA System 2597.4.5.2 The US System 2597.5 Laws Regulating Management of Nuclear Waste 2627.5.1 EU’s Nuclear Waste Management Law 2627.5.2 The United States Nuclear Waste Management Laws 2627.5.2.1 Low- Level Radioactive Waste 2637.5.2.2 High- Level Nuclear Waste 2637.6 Nuclear Waste Storage and Transportation 2667.6.1 Transportation of Nuclear Waste 2667.6.2 LLW Transportation 2667.6.3 TU/ILW Transportation 2667.6.4 HLW/SNF Transportation 2677.7 Nuclear Waste Disposal 2677.7.1 Low- Level Radioactive Waste Disposal 2687.7.2 Transuranic Waste Disposal 2687.7.3 High- Level Nuclear Waste Disposal 2697.7.4 HLW Management in the United States 2727.7.4.1 The Lyons Salt Mine Project 2757.7.4.2 Other US Repository Sites 2767.7.4.3 Politics of the Yucca Mountain Project 2767.8 Global Status of HLW Disposal 2777.8.1 Quantity of HLW 2777.8.2 United States 2777.8.3 Finland HLW Repository 2817.8.4 Sweden 2837.8.5 France 2857.8.6 HLW Management in Other Countries 2857.8.6.1 Shared Repository Concept 2857.9 Nuclear Waste From Reactor Decommissioning 2877.10 Summary 288Study Questions 290References 290Supplemental Reading 294Web Resources 294Acronyms/Symbols 295Unit Conversions 2958 Electronic Waste 2968.1 Introduction 2968.1.1 Metals in e- Waste 2978.1.2 Definition of Electronic Waste 2988.1.2.1 The United States 2998.1.2.2 European Union 2998.1.2.3 United Nations 2998.2 Laws Regulating Electronic Waste 3028.2.1 The United States 3028.2.2 The United Nations 3028.2.3 The EU 3048.3 Nature and Composition of Electronic Waste 3048.3.1 Planned Obsolescence 3058.3.2 Material Composition of e- Waste 3068.3.3 Material Composition of Desktop Computers 3088.3.4 Material Composition of Laptops 3098.3.5 Material Composition of Tablets 3118.3.6 Material Composition of Mobile Phones 3118.4 E- Waste Quantity 3128.4.1 Estimation of e- Waste Quantity 3148.5 E- Waste Recycling and Recovery of Valuable Metals 3168.5.1 Metal Recovery from E- Waste 3178.5.2 Benefits and Challenges of e- Waste Recycling 3188.6 Health and Environmental Impacts 3198.6.1 Informal E- Waste Recycling 3198.6.2 Health and Environmental Impacts of Informal Recycling 3218.7 Sustainable Management of E- Waste 3248.7.1 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and E- Waste 3248.7.2 Other Measures for Sustainable E- Waste Management 3268.8 Summary 326Study Questions 327References 328Supplementary Readings 331Web Resources 331Acronyms/Symbols 3319 Waste Minimization 3329.1 Introduction 3329.2 Definitions 3339.3 Approaches to Waste Minimization 3349.4 Recycling 3399.4.1 Plastic Recycling 3429.5 Innovative Waste Minimization Technologies 3449.5.1 Innovation in Plastic Packaging 3449.5.2 Microfactories 3459.5.3 Repurposing 3469.5.4 NGOs’ Efforts 3469.6 Waste Exchange 3489.7 Zero Waste 3499.7.1 Evolution and Implementation of the Zero Waste Concept 3499.7.2 Tool for Measuring ZW Success 3509.8 Ship Recycling 3519.8.1 Methods of Ship Recycling 3519.8.2 Ship Recycling – A Hazardous Occupation 3529.8.3 Modern Ship Recycling Industry 3549.8.4 International Treaties 3589.9 Airplane Recycling 3599.9.1 Airplane Recycling Market 3599.9.2 Airplane Recycling Standards 3599.9.3 Airplane Recycling 3609.9.4 Composites 3619.9.4.1 Composites Recycling 3629.10 Summary 363Study Questions 364References 365Supplemental Reading 367Web Resources 367Acronyms/Symbols 36810 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products 36910.1 Introduction 36910.1.1 Definition of PPCPs 37110.1.2 Nature of PPCPs 37210.1.3 What Comprises PPCPs 37310.2 Concerns for PPCPs 37310.3 Sources of PPCPs in the Environment 37510.3.1 PPCPs in Sewage Treatment Plants 37710.3.2 Occurrence of PPCPs in Drinking Water 37810.4 Environmental Impacts of PPCPs 37810.4.1 PPCPs in Drinking Water and Its Health Impact 37810.4.2 Treatment Technologies for PPCPs’ Removal 37910.5 Forensic Applications of PPCPs 38010.5.1 PPCPs’ Application in Geological Dating 38010.6 Research Status and Future Needs 38210.7 Summary 383Study Questions 384References 385Supplementary Reading 387Web Resources 387Acronyms/Symbols 388Glossary 389Index 414Geologic Time Scale 431Common Units and Conversion Factors 432United Nations’ classification of countries based on income (as of July 2021) 435