Introduction to Petroleum Engineering

John R. Fanchi holds the Ross B. Matthews Chair of Petroleum Engineering at Texas Christian University in Fort Worth, Texas. He has taught at the Colorado School of Mines, and has industrial experience with major oil and gas companies including Chevron and Marathon. He is a Distinguished Member of the Society of Petroleum Engineers.Richard L. Christiansen has taught Petroleum Engineering at the University of Utah and Colorado School of Mines. He has broad industrial experience as a petroleum engineer in independent and major oil and gas companies. He has a Ph.D. in chemical engineering from the University of Wisconsin.

• About the Authors xiiiPreface xvAbout the Companion Website xvi1 Introduction 11.1 What is Petroleum Engineering? 11.1.1 Alternative Energy Opportunities 31.1.2 Oil and Gas Units 31.1.3 Production Performance Ratios 41.1.4 Classification of Oil and Gas 41.2 Life Cycle of a Reservoir 61.3 Reservoir Management 91.3.1 Recovery Efficiency 91.4 Petroleum Economics 111.4.1 The Price of Oil 141.4.2 How Does Oil Price Affect Oil Recovery? 141.4.3 How High Can Oil Prices Go? 151.5 Petroleum and the Environment 161.5.1 Anthropogenic Climate Change 161.5.2 Environmental Issues 191.6 Activities 201.6.1 Further Reading 201.6.2 True/False 211.6.3 Exercises 212 The Future of Energy 232.1 Global Oil and Gas Production and Consumption 232.2 Resources and Reserves 242.2.1 Reserves 272.3 Oil and Gas Resources 292.3.1 Coal Gas 292.3.2 Gas Hydrates 312.3.3 Tight Gas Sands, Shale Gas, and Shale Oil 312.3.4 Tar Sands 332.4 Global Distribution of Oil and Gas Reserves 342.5 Peak Oil 362.5.1 World Oil Production Rate Peak 372.5.2 World Per Capita Oil Production Rate Peak 372.6 Future Energy Options 392.6.1 Goldilocks Policy for Energy Transition 392.7 Activities 422.7.1 Further Reading 422.7.2 True/False 422.7.3 Exercises 423 Properties of Reservoir Fluids 453.1 Origin 453.2 Classification 473.3 Definitions 513.4 Gas Properties 543.5 Oil Properties 553.6 Water Properties 603.7 Sources of Fluid Data 613.7.1 Constant Composition Expansion 613.7.2 Differential Liberation 623.7.3 Separator Test 623.8 Applications of Fluid Properties 633.9 Activities 643.9.1 Further Reading 643.9.2 True/False 643.9.3 Exercises 644 Properties of Reservoir Rock 674.1 Porosity 674.1.1 Compressibility of Pore Volume 694.1.2 Saturation 704.1.3 Volumetric Analysis 714.2 Permeability 714.2.1 Pressure Dependence of Permeability 734.2.2 Superficial Velocity and Interstitial Velocity 744.2.3 Radial Flow of Liquids 744.2.4 Radial Flow of Gases 754.3 Reservoir Heterogeneity and Permeability 764.3.1 Parallel Configuration 764.3.2 Series Configuration 764.3.3 Dykstra–Parsons Coefficient 774.4 Directional Permeability 794.5 Activities 804.5.1 Further Reading 804.5.2 True/False 804.5.3 Exercises 805 Multiphase Flow 835.1 Interfacial Tension, Wettability, and Capillary Pressure 835.2 Fluid Distribution and Capillary Pressure 865.3 Relative Permeability 885.4 Mobility and Fractional Flow 905.5 One‐dimensional Water-oil Displacement 915.6 Well Productivity 955.7 Activities 975.7.1 Further Reading 975.7.2 True/False 975.7.3 Exercises 986 Petroleum Geology 1016.1 Geologic History of the Earth 1016.1.1 Formation of the Rocky Mountains 1066.2 Rocks and Formations 1076.2.1 Formations 1086.3 Sedimentary Basins and Traps 1116.3.1 Traps 1116.4 What Do You Need to form a Hydrocarbon Reservoir? 1126.5 Volumetric Analysis, Recovery Factor, and EUR 1136.5.1 Volumetric Oil in Place 1146.5.2 Volumetric Gas in Place 1146.5.3 Recovery Factor and Estimated Ultimate Recovery 1156.6 Activities 1156.6.1 Further Reading 1156.6.2 True/False 1166.6.3 Exercises 1167 Reservoir Geophysics 1197.1 Seismic Waves 1197.1.1 Earthquake Magnitude 1227.2 Acoustic Impedance and Reflection Coefficients 1247.3 Seismic Resolution 1267.3.1 Vertical Resolution 1267.3.2 Lateral Resolution 1277.3.3 Exploration Geophysics and Reservoir Geophysics 1287.4 Seismic Data Acquisition, Processing, and Interpretation 1297.4.1 Data Acquisition 1297.4.2 Data Processing 1307.4.3 Data Interpretation 1307.5 Petroelastic Model 1317.5.1 IFM Velocities 1317.5.2 IFM Moduli 1327.6 Geomechanical Model 1337.7 Activities 1357.7.1 Further Reading 1357.7.2 True/False 1357.7.3 Exercises 1358 Drilling 1378.1 Drilling Rights 1378.2 Rotary Drilling Rigs 1388.2.1 Power Systems 1398.2.2 Hoisting System 1418.2.3 Rotation System 1418.2.4 Drill String and Bits 1438.2.5 Circulation System 1468.2.6 Well Control System 1488.3 The Drilling Process 1498.3.1 Planning 1498.3.2 Site Preparation 1508.3.3 Drilling 1518.3.4 Open‐Hole Logging 1528.3.5 Setting Production Casing 1538.4 Types of Wells 1558.4.1 Well Spacing and Infill Drilling 1558.4.2 Directional Wells 1568.4.3 Extended Reach Drilling 1588.5 Activities 1588.5.1 Further Reading 1588.5.2 True/False 1588.5.3 Exercises 1599 Well Logging 1619.1 Logging Environment 1619.1.1 Wellbore and Formation 1629.1.2 Open or Cased? 1639.1.3 Depth of Investigation 1649.2 Lithology Logs 1649.2.1 Gamma‐Ray Logs 1649.2.2 Spontaneous Potential Logs 1659.2.3 Photoelectric Log 1679.3 Porosity Logs 1679.3.1 Density Logs 1679.3.2 Acoustic Logs 1689.3.3 Neutron Logs 1699.4 Resistivity Logs 1709.5 Other Types of Logs 1749.5.1 Borehole Imaging 1749.5.2 Spectral Gamma‐Ray Logs 1749.5.3 Dipmeter Logs 1749.6 Log Calibration with Formation Samples 1759.6.1 Mud Logs 1759.6.2 Whole Core 1759.6.3 Sidewall Core 1769.7 Measurement While Drilling and Logging While Drilling 1769.8 Reservoir Characterization Issues 1779.8.1 Well Log Legacy 1779.8.2 Cutoffs 1779.8.3 Cross‐Plots 1789.8.4 Continuity of Formations between Wells 1789.8.5 Log Suites 1799.8.6 Scales of Reservoir Information 1809.9 Activities 1829.9.1 Further Reading 1829.9.2 True/False 1829.9.3 Exercises 18210 Well Completions 18510.1 Skin 18610.2 Production Casing and Liners 18810.3 Perforating 18910.4 Acidizing 19210.5 Hydraulic Fracturing 19310.5.1 Horizontal Wells 20110.6 Wellbore and Surface Hardware 20210.7 Activities 20310.7.1 Further Reading 20310.7.2 True/False 20310.7.3 Exercises 20411 Upstream Facilities 20511.1 Onshore Facilities 20511.2 Flash Calculation for Separators 20811.3 Pressure Rating for Separators 21111.4 Single‐Phase Flow in Pipe 21311.5 Multiphase Flow in Pipe 21611.5.1 Modeling Multiphase Flow in Pipes 21711.6 Well Patterns 21811.6.1 Intelligent Wells and Intelligent Fields 21911.7 Offshore Facilities 22111.8 Urban Operations: The Barnett Shale 22411.9 Activities 22511.9.1 Further Reading 22511.9.2 True/False 22511.9.3 Exercises 22512 Transient Well Testing 22712.1 Pressure Transient Testing 22712.1.1 Flow Regimes 22812.1.2 Types of Pressure Transient Tests 22812.2 Oil Well Pressure Transient Testing 22912.2.1 Pressure Buildup Test 23212.2.2 Interpreting Pressure Transient Tests 23512.2.3 Radius of Investigation of a Liquid Well 23712.3 Gas Well Pressure Transient Testing 23712.3.1 Diffusivity Equation 23812.3.2 Pressure Buildup Test in a Gas Well 23812.3.3 Radius of Investigation 23912.3.4 Pressure Drawdown Test and the Reservoir Limit Test 24012.3.5 Rate Transient Analysis 24112.3.6 Two‐Rate Test 24212.4 Gas Well Deliverability 24212.4.1 The SBA Method 24412.4.2 The LIT Method 24512.5 Summary of Transient Well Testing 24612.6 Activities 24612.6.1 Further Reading 24612.6.2 True/False 24612.6.3 Exercises 24713 Production Performance 24913.1 Field Performance Data 24913.1.1 Bubble Mapping 25013.2 Decline Curve Analysis 25113.2.1 Alternative DCA Models 25313.3 Probabilistic DCA 25413.4 Oil Reservoir Material Balance 25613.4.1 Undersaturated Oil Reservoir with Water Influx 25713.4.2 Schilthuis Material Balance Equation 25813.5 Gas Reservoir Material Balance 26113.5.1 Depletion Drive Gas Reservoir 26213.6 Depletion Drive Mechanisms and Recovery Efficiencies 26313.7 Inflow Performance Relationships 26613.8 Activities 26713.8.1 Further Reading 26713.8.2 True/False 26713.8.3 Exercises 26814 Reservoir Performance 27114.1 Reservoir Flow Simulators 27114.1.1 Flow Units 27214.1.2 Reservoir Characterization Using Flow Units 27214.2 Reservoir Flow Modeling Workflows 27414.3 Performance of Conventional Oil and Gas Reservoirs 27614.3.1 Wilmington Field, California: Immiscible Displacement by Water Flooding 27714.3.2 Prudhoe Bay Field, Alaska: Water Flood, Gas Cycling, and Miscible Gas Injection 27814.4 Performance of an Unconventional Reservoir 28014.4.1 Barnett Shale, Texas: Shale Gas Production 28014.5 Performance of Geothermal Reservoirs 28514.6 Activities 28714.6.1 Further Reading 28714.6.2 True/False 28714.6.3 Exercises 28815 Midstream and Downstream Operations 29115.1 The Midstream Sector 29115.2 The Downstream Sector: Refineries 29415.2.1 Separation 29515.2.2 Conversion 29915.2.3 Purification 30015.2.4 Refinery Maintenance 30015.3 The Downstream Sector: Natural Gas Processing Plants 30015.4 Sakhalin‐2 Project, Sakhalin Island, Russia 30115.4.1 History of Sakhalin Island 30215.4.2 The Sakhalin‐2 Project 30615.5 Activities 31015.5.1 Further Reading 31015.5.2 True/False 31015.5.3 Exercises 311Appendix Unit Conversion Factors 313References 317Index 327