Introduction to Energy, Renewable Energy and Electrical Engineering

EWALD F. FUCHS, Ph.D., has held professional engineering posts for 8 years at Siemens AG in Erlangen and Mülheim/Ruhr, Germany in the areas of control, energy conversion, and power systems, and a tenured faculty position thereafter for 35 years at the University of Colorado, teaching undergraduate and graduate energy conversion/power classes. He holds two U.S. patents on AC machines with increased torque and speed for hybrid/electric propulsion employing compensation of flux weakening (CFW). HEIDI A. FUCHS is a Senior Scientific Engineering Associate in Energy Technologies Area at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), with experience in energy use analysis, life-cycle energy and cost assessments, energy management practices, the energy-water nexus, spreadsheet modelling, and technical documentation.

• Acknowledgments xiiiSummary xvPreface xixGlossary of Symbols, Abbreviations, and Acronyms xxixAbout the Companion Website liii1 Basic Concepts 11.1 Energy Conservation: Laws of Thermodynamics 11.2 Converting Heat to Mechanical Power 21.2.1 Carnot Cycle, Carnot Machines, and Carnot Efficiency 41.2.2 Rankine Cycle 81.2.3 Brayton Cycle 91.2.4 Ericsson Cycle 91.2.5 Internal Combustion Engines 101.2.6 Steam, Gas, and Oil Turbines 131.2.7 Energy Content of Common Fuels (e.g. Gasoline, Diesel, Methanol, Hydrogen) 151.3 Heat Pumps and Air-Conditioning Units 151.3.1 Heating Cycle Of Heat Pump 211.3.2 Combined Heating and Cooling Performance (CHCP) Coefficient of a Residence 221.4 Hydro Turbines 241.5 Wind Power and the Lanchester–Betz–Joukowsky Limit 261.6 Thermal Solar and PV Plants 281.7 Capacity Factors 401.8 Force Calculations Based on Coulomb’s Law 401.8.1 Electric Charge 411.8.2 Electrostatic Force 431.9 Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors 451.10 Instantaneous Current i and Voltage v 461.10.1 Instantaneous Voltage v, Work/Energy work, and Power p 461.11 The Question of Frequency: AC Versus DC Distribution and Transmission Systems 471.12 Reference Directions and Polarities of Voltages and Currents 521.13 Power p 531.14 Ideal Passive Electric Circuit Elements 531.15 Independent and Dependent Voltage and Current Sources 551.16 Galvanic Elements, Voltaic Series, and Lead–Acid Batteries 551.17 Electrolysis 601.18 Flow Batteries and Fuel Cells 611.19 Reformer 611.20 Energy Storage Plants 621.21 Current Projects and Issues with Potential Solutions 621.22 Software in Public Domain (e.g. PSPICE, Mathematica, MATLAB/Simulink) 681.23 Summary 68Problems 69References 80Appendix 1.A Design Data of Photovoltaic Power Plant of Figure E1.6.1 85Appendix 1.B The Nature of Electricity and Its Manufacturing 89Appendix 1.C The Cost of Electricity in a Renewable Energy System 992 Electric Circuit Laws 1032.1 Ohm’s Law and Instantaneous Electric Power p(t) 1032.2 Kirchhoff’s Current and Voltage Laws (KCL) and (KVL), Respectively 1042.3 Application of KVL to Single-Loop Circuits 1072.3.1 Voltage Division or Voltage Divider 1082.4 Single-Node Pair Circuits 1092.4.1 Current Division 1102.5 Resistor Combinations 1122.6 Nodal Analysis 1152.7 Loop or Mesh Analysis 1172.8 Superposition 1182.8.1 Principle of Superposition 1192.9 Source Exchange/Transformation 1212.10 Thévenin’s and Norton’s Theorems 1222.10.1 Equivalency of Thévenin and Norton Circuits 1262.11 Wheatstone and Thomson Bridges 1282.12 Summary 131Problems 132References 1373 DC Circuit Transient Analysis 1393.1 Capacitors 1393.1.1 Energy Stored in a Capacitor 1393.1.2 Capacitor Combination Formulas 1463.2 Inductors 1473.2.1 Energy Stored in an Inductor 1483.2.2 Inductor Combination Formulas 1513.3 Transient Analysis Applied to Circuits Resulting in First-Order, Ordinary Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients 1523.3.1 RC Series Network and Time Constant τRC 1523.3.2 RL Series Network and Time Constant τRL 1563.4 Transient Analysis Applied to Circuits Resulting in Second-Order, Ordinary Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients 1603.5 Summary 167Problems 168References 1764 Alternating Current (AC) Steady-State Analysis with Phasors 1794.1 Sinusoidal and Cosinusoidal Functions 1794.2 Sinusoidal/Cosinusoidal and Complex Number Relations 1804.2.1 Definition of Phasors 1814.3 Phasor Relations for Circuit Elements such as Resistor, Inductor, and Capacitor 1874.3.1 Resistor 1874.3.2 Inductor 1874.3.3 Capacitor 1884.3.4 Definition of Impedance z and Admittance y 189Summary 1924.4 Delta-Wye Transformation 1934.5 Solution Based on Kirchhoff’s Laws 1934.6 Solution Using Nodal Analysis 1964.7 Solution with Mesh and Loop Analysis by Applying Kirchhoff’s and Ohm’s Laws 1984.8 Solution Based on Superposition 1994.9 Solution with Source Transformation/Exchange 2024.10 Solutions Employing Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems and Source Transformations 2044.11 Nonsinusoidal Steady-State Response 2094.12 Summary 213Problems 213References 220Appendix 4.A Conversion of Phasors from Rectangular to Polar Form 2215 Instantaneous and Steady-State Power Analysis 2255.1 Introduction 2255.2 Instantaneous Power p(t) 2255.3 Average (Real) Power P 2285.4 Relation Between Root-Mean-Square (rms) or Effective (eff) Value and Amplitude 2305.5 Fundamental or Displacement Power Factor 2325.6 Complex Power 2385.7 Fundamental Power Factor Correction 2465.8 Residential Single-Phase AC Power Circuits in the United States 2505.8.1 Power Requirements for Lighting Equipment 2515.9 Three-Phase Distribution and Transmission Networks 2545.9.1 Balanced Wye (Y) Source-Wye (Y) Load Connection 2595.9.2 Balanced Wye (Y) Source-Delta (Δ) Load Connection 2615.9.3 Treatment of Delta (Δ)-Connected Source 2625.9.4 Power Relationships for Three-Phase Balanced Systems 2645.10 Summary 265Problems 266References 2746 Coupled Magnetic Circuits, Single- and Three-Phase Transformers 2776.1 Introduction 2776.2 Magnetic Circuits 2776.3 Magnetically Coupled Circuits, Definition of Self- and Mutual Inductances 2886.4 Unsaturated or Linear Single-Phase Transformer 2906.5 Ideal Transformer 2936.6 Applications of Single-Phase Power Transformers 3016.7 Three-Phase Power Transformers 3186.8 To Ground or Not to Ground? That Is the Question 3316.9 Results Obtained Through More Accurate Calculation and Measurement Methods 3316.10 Summary 332Problems 334References 3447 Frequency Characteristics of Electric Circuits 3497.1 Introduction 3497.2 Sinusoidal/Cosinusoidal Frequency Analysis 3507.3 Passive Filters 3507.3.1 Poles and Zeros of Transfer Function 3517.3.2 First-Order RC Low-Pass Filter Circuit and Its Frequency Characteristics 3527.3.3 First-Order RC High-Pass Filter Circuit and Its Frequency Characteristics 3547.3.4 Band-Pass and Band-Rejection (Second-Order) Filter Circuits and Their Frequency Characteristics 3567.3.5 Series and Parallel Resonant RLC (Second-Order) Circuits 3617.4 Active Filters 3687.5 Summary 368Problems 369References 3738 Operational Amplifiers 3758.1 Introduction 3758.2 Ideal Operational (OP) Amplifier 3768.3 Noninverting OP Amplifier 3778.4 Unity-Gain OP Amplifier 3788.5 Inverting OP Amplifier 3798.6 Differential Amplifier 3818.7 Summing Networks 3828.8 Integrating and Differentiating Networks 3838.9 Active Filters 3898.10 Current-to-Voltage Converter 3928.11 Controllers for Electric Circuits 3938.11.1 P Controller 3948.11.2 I Controller 4088.11.3 PI Controller 4098.11.4 D Controller 4098.11.5 PID Controller 4118.11.6 PD Controller 4178.12 Summary 417Problems 419References 4289 Semiconductor Diodes and Switches 4319.1 Introduction 4319.2 The pn Junction: Elementary Building Block of Semiconductor Diodes and Switches 4329.3 Zener Diode 4369.4 Varistor 4369.5 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) 4379.6 Metal–Oxide–Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET) 4409.7 Thyristor (Current Gate) or Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR) 4409.8 Triac 4449.9 Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) 4459.10 Gate Turn-Off Thyristor (GTO) 4469.11 Summary 446References 44710 Applications of Semiconductor Switches Using PSPICE: Uncontrolled and Controlled AC–DC Converters (Rectifiers), AC Voltage and Current Regulators and Controllers, and DC–AC Converters (Inverters) 44910.1 Half-Wave, Single-Phase Rectification 45010.2 Full-Wave, Single-Phase Rectification 47310.3 AC Current Controllers 48410.4 Clippers and Clampers 49110.5 Three-Phase Rectifiers 49510.6 Three-Phase Inverters 50810.7 Design of a Photovoltaic (PV) Power Plant 51910.8 Design of a Wind Power Plant 52710.9 Efficiency Increase of Induction Motors Based on Semiconductor Controllers and Influence of Harmonics on Power System Components 53810.10 Power Quality and the Use of Input and Output Filters for Rectifiers and Inverters 53810.11 Summary 550Problems 551References 55711 DC Machines Serving as Role Models for AC Rotating Machine Operation and Electronic Converters 56111.1 Introduction 56111.2 Mechanical Commutation Concept 56511.3 Equivalent Circuits and Voltage–Current Diagrams of Separately, Cumulatively, Differentially, Self-Excited, and Series-Connected DC Machines 57611.4 Speed and Torque Control 58011.5 Summary 58911.5 Problems 589References 596Appendix 11.A Magnetic Field Computation Based on Numerical Methods 598Appendix 11.B Sample Calculation of Self- and Leakage Inductances and Flux of a DC Machine Field Winding from Flux Plots 60712 Permanent-Magnet, Induction, and Synchronous Machines: Their Performance at Variable Speed and Torque 61512.1 Revolving Magnetic Field 61612.2 Permanent-Magnet Materials 62412.3 Designs of Permanent-Magnet Machines (PMMs) 63012.3.1 Speed and Torque Control of PMM 63812.3.2 Applications of PMM to Automobiles and Wind Power Plants 64112.4 Three-Phase (Polyphase) IMs: Balanced Operation 65612.4.1 Basic Principle of Operation 65612.4.2 Equivalent Circuits 66012.4.3 Types of Induction Machines 67012.4.4 Speed and Torque Control with Semiconductor Converters and Controllers of IM as Applied to Heat Pumps, Automobiles, Trains, and Wind Power Plants 67012.4.5 Optimization of Three- and Single-Phase IMs with Respect to Efficiency for Given Performance Constraints 68312.5 Polyphase Non-salient and Salient Pole Synchronous Machines (SMs) 68412.5.1 Equivalent Circuits, Phasor Diagrams, and Magnetic Field Distributions Based on Polycentric Grid/Mesh Systems 68512.5.2 Applications of SMs When Independently Controlling Speed and Torque 70312.6 Summary 703Problems 704References 709Index 715