Insect Biodiversity

ROBERT G. FOOTTIT is a research scientist specializing in the taxonomy of aphids and related groups, with the Canadian National Collection of Insects and Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. His research interests include the use of morphological and molecular approaches in the study of aphid species and populations.PETER H. ADLER is a professor of entomology at Clemson University, where he holds a teaching and research appointment, specializing in the behavior, ecology, genetics, and systematics of insects, particularly butterflies and medically important flies.

• List of Contributors xxiiiForeword xxixPreface, Volume II xxxiiiAcknowledgments xxxv1 Introduction – A Brief History of Revolutions in the Study of Insect Biodiversity 1Peter H. Adler and Robert G. Foottit1.1 Discovery 11.2 Conceptual Development 51.3 Information Management 61.4 Conclusions 7Acknowledgments 8References 8Part I Habitats and Regions 132 Insect Biodiversity in the Arctic 15Ian D. Hodkinson2.1 Documenting Biodiversity – Traditional Taxonomy Versus DNA Barcoding 172.2 Insect Species Diversity in the Arctic 182.2.1 Composition of the Arctic Insect Fauna 182.2.2 Species Richness Trends Along Latitudinal Gradients 252.2.3 Geographical and Regional Variations in Species Richness 272.2.4 Diversity Oases Within the Arctic 282.3 Historical Insect Biodiversity in the Arctic – the Time Perspective 292.3.1 Nunataks and Glacial Refugia as Generators of Biodiversity 302.3.2 Endemism 312.4 Biodiversity on the Landscape Scale 322.4.1 Variation in Biodiversity on a Landscape Scale 322.4.2 Local Effects on Biodiversity – Predation and Natural Disturbance 342.5 Important Characteristics of Arctic Insect Biodiversity 352.5.1 Specialist Versus Generalist Species 352.5.2 Life‐History Adaptation 352.5.3 Genetic Diversity Within Species and Groups 362.5.4 Reproductive Variation and Parthenogenesis 362.5.5 A Diversity of Adaptations for Maximizing Heat Absorption 372.6 Cold Tolerance – a Diversity of Adaptations 382.6.1 Brachyptery and Wing Polymorphism 392.7 Dispersal, Immigration, and Biodiversity 392.8 Pollinator Networks and Pollinator Biodiversity 402.9 A Biodiversity Paradise for Parasites? 412.10 Biodiversity and the Changing Arctic Climate 42References 443 Insect Biodiversity in Indochina: A Window into the Riches of the Oriental Region 59Seunghwan Lee and Ram Keshari Duwal3.1 Physical Geography and Climate 623.2 Features of Insect Biodiversity in the Lower Mekong Subregion 623.2.1 Blattodea 703.2.2 Coleoptera 703.2.3 Dermaptera 713.2.4 Diptera 723.2.5 Embiodea 723.2.6 Ephemeroptera 723.2.7 Hemiptera 723.2.8 Hymenoptera 723.2.9 “Isoptera” 723.2.10 Lepidoptera 723.2.11 Mantodea 733.2.12 Mecoptera 733.2.13 Megaloptera 733.2.14 Microcoryphia and Zygentoma 733.2.15 Neuroptera 733.2.16 Notoptera (Grylloblattodea and Mantophasmatodea) 733.2.17 Odonata 733.2.18 Orthoptera 733.2.19 Phasmatodea 733.2.20 Phthiraptera 733.2.21 Plecoptera 743.2.22 Psocoptera 743.2.23 Raphidioptera 743.2.24 Siphonaptera 743.2.25 Strepsiptera 743.2.26 Thysanoptera 743.2.27 Trichoptera 743.2.28 Zoraptera 743.3 Insect Biodiversity and Society in Indochina 743.3.1 Entomophagy in the Lower Mekong Subregion 743.3.2 Research Initiatives 763.4 Conclusions 77Acknowledgments 78References 784 Biodiversity of Arthropods on Islands 81Rosemary G. Gillespie and Kipling Will4.1 What is an Island? 814.1.1 History of the Island 824.1.2 Degree of Isolation 844.1.3 Area of the Island 844.1.4 Age of the Island 854.2 Ecological Attributes of Islands 854.2.1 Species Diversity on Islands 854.2.2 Island Colonization 864.2.3 Factors Facilitating Establishment 864.2.4 Niche Preemption 864.2.5 Ecological Release 874.2.6 Networks of Ecological Interactions 874.3 Evolution on Islands 874.3.1 Anagenesis 874.3.2 Cladogenesis 874.3.3 Adaptive Radiation 884.3.4 Isolation, Hybridization, and Admixture 884.3.5 Parallel Evolution and Convergence 894.4 Evolution in Other Insular Environments 894.4.1 Mountaintops – Sky Islands 894.4.2 Caves 894.4.3 Desert Dunes and Salt Lakes 894.4.4 Habitat Fragments 904.5 Characteristics of Island Biodiversity 904.5.1 Disharmony 904.5.2 Endemism 914.5.3 Loss of Dispersal Ability and Flightlessness 914.5.4 Innovations 914.5.5 Size 924.5.6 Reproductive Shifts 924.6 Conservation 924.6.1 Taxonomic Impediments 934.6.2 Restricted Ranges and Small Population Sizes 934.6.3 Abiotic Factors 934.6.4 Invasive Species 944.7 Conclusion 94References 945 Beneficial Insects in Agriculture: Enhancement of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services 105Matthew S. Jones and William E. Snyder5.1 Components of Biodiversity: Species Richness, Species Evenness, and Species Identity 1065.2 Why Does Insect Biodiversity Matter to Agriculture? 1065.2.1 Complementarity 1075.2.1.1 Temporal Complementarity 1075.2.1.2 Spatial Complementarity 1085.2.1.3 Behavioral Complementarity 1095.2.2 Identity Effects in Pollinator, Predator, and Detritivore Communities 1105.2.3 Disruptive Species Interactions in Diverse Communities 1115.3 Degradation of Biodiversity Through Agricultural Intensification, and Its Reversal 1125.4 Restoring Biodiversity to Agroecosystems 1125.4.1 Restoring Key Resources 1125.4.2 Optimizing Use of Pesticides 1135.4.3 Diversifying Farming Landscapes at Larger Scales 1135.5 Conclusions and Recommendations 1155.5.1 Clarify Mechanisms Leading to Biodiversity Effects 1155.5.2 Consider Biodiversity Effects That Span Multiple Ecosystem Services 1155.5.3 Better Link Management Practices to Beneficial Biodiversity Effects 1155.5.4 Rank the Relative Importance of Habitat Loss Versus Agrochemical Use 1165.5.5 Elucidate Strategies That Facilitate Transition from Current Agricultural Production Practices to Those That Are Sustainable and Provide Improved EcosystemServices 1165.6 Summary 116Acknowledgments 117References 1176 Insects in Caves 123David C. Culver and Tanja Pipan6.1 The Story of Leptodirus hochenwartii 1236.2 The Variety of Subterranean Spaces 1246.2.1 Overview 1246.2.2 Caves 1256.2.3 Soil and Interstitial Habitats 1266.2.4 Shallow Subterranean Habitats 1276.2.4.1 Epikarst 1286.2.4.2 Milieu Souterrain Superficiel 1286.2.4.3 Calcrete Aquifers 1286.2.4.4 Unifying Features of Shallow Subterranean Habitats 1306.3 Ecological Roles of Insects in Caves 1336.3.1 Relative Importance of Subterranean Habitats in the Ecology of Different Insects 1336.3.2 Trophic Roles 1346.4 Morphological and Life‐History Adaptations of Insects to Subterranean Life 1346.5 Probable Modes of Successful Colonization of Subterranean Space 1386.5.1 Initial Colonization 1406.5.2 Successful Colonization 1406.5.3 Allopatric Versus Parapatric Speciation 1416.5.4 Subterranean Dispersal 1426.6 Taxonomic and Geographic Patterns of Subterranean Insect Biodiversity 1426.6.1 Geographic Patterns 1426.6.2 Taxonomic Review of Troglobiotic Insects 1436.6.2.1 Collembola 1446.6.2.2 Diplura 1466.6.2.3 Coleoptera 1466.6.2.4 Fulgoromorpha 1476.7 Human Utility and Protection of Cave Insects 147References 147Part II Taxa 1537 Biodiversity of the Thysanurans (Microcoryphia and Zygentoma) 155Luis F. Mendes7.1 Paleontological Data 1597.2 Parasitism 1677.2.1 Unicellular Parasites 1677.2.2 Nematoda 1677.2.3 Acarids 1677.2.4 Strepsiptera 1677.2.5 Fungi 1677.3 Predation 1687.4 Order Microcoryphia (= Archaeognatha) 1687.4.1 Characterization 1687.4.2 Bionomics 1727.4.3 Taxonomy 1737.4.4 Identification Key for Families, Subfamilies, and Paleoforms of Microcoryphia 1747.5 Order Zygentoma (= Thysanura Sensu Stricto) 1757.5.1 Characterization 1757.5.2 Bionomics 1797.5.3 Taxonomy 1807.5.4 Identification Key for Families and Subfamilies of Zygentoma 1817.6 Genetic Studies of Thysanurans 1837.7 Thysanurans and Humans 1847.8 Geographic Distribution of the Thysanurans 185References 1878 Biodiversity of Zoraptera and Their Little‐Known Biology 199Jae C. Choe8.1 Morphology 2018.2 Life History and Ecology 2048.3 Reproduction 2088.4 Phylogenetic Position – “The Zoraptera Problem” 2108.5 Conclusion 211Acknowledgments 212References 2129 Biodiversity of Embiodea 219Janice S. Edgerly9.1 Diversity in Habitat and Silk 2239.2 The Promise of Silk‐Like Biomaterials and Emerging Lessons from Webspinners 2289.3 Social Behavior 2299.4 Families of Embiodea 2319.4.1 Andesembiidae 2319.4.2 Anisembiidae 2329.4.3 Archembiidae 2339.4.4 Australembiidae 2349.4.5 Clothodidae 2349.4.6 Embiidae 2359.4.7 Embonychidae 2369.4.8 Notoligotomidae 2369.4.9 Oligotomidae 2369.4.10 Paedembiidae 2389.4.11 Ptilocerembiidae 2389.4.12 Scelembiidae 2389.4.13 Teratembiidae 2399.5 Webspinners of the Fossil Record 2399.6 Conclusion 239References 24010 Biodiversity of Orthoptera 245Hojun Song10.1 Taxonomic Classification and Phylogeny 24510.2 Diversity and Distribution 24610.3 Morphological and Biological Diversity 25010.4 Societal Importance 25310.5 Overview of Taxa 25410.5.1 Suborder Ensifera 25410.5.1.1 Superfamily Grylloidea 25510.5.1.2 Superfamily Gryllotalpoidea 25510.5.1.3 Superfamily Schizodactyloidea 25910.5.1.4 Superfamily Rhaphidophoroidea 26010.5.1.5 Superfamily Hagloidea 26010.5.1.6 Superfamily Stenopelmatoidea 26010.5.1.7 Superfamily Tettigonioidea 26110.5.2 Suborder Caelifera 26210.5.2.1 Superfamily Tridactyloidea 26310.5.2.2 Superfamily Tetrigoidea 26310.5.2.3 Superfamily Eumastacoidea 26510.5.2.4 Superfamily Proscopioidea 26610.5.3.5 Superfamily Tanaoceroidea 26610.5.3.6 Superfamily Trigonopterygoidea 26710.5.3.7 Superfamily Pneumoroidea 26710.5.3.8 Superfamily Pyrgomorphoidea 26710.5.3.9 Superfamily Acridoidea 268Acknowledgments 271References 27111 Biodiversity of Phasmatodea 281Sven Bradler and Thomas R. Buckley11.1 Phasmatodean Phylogeny 28611.2 Overview of Taxa 28811.2.1 Timema 28911.2.2 Agathemera 29011.2.3 Heteronemiinae 29011.2.4 Aschiphasmatinae 29011.2.5 Phylliinae – The True Leaf Insects 29111.2.6 Heteropteryginae 29211.2.7 Diapheromerinae 29311.2.8 Pseudophasmatinae 29411.2.9 Palophinae 29411.2.10 The African Clade 29511.2.11 Gratidiini 29511.2.12 Clitumnini 29611.2.13 Medaurini 29611.2.14 Pharnaciini 29611.2.15 Cladomorphinae 29611.2.16 Stephanacridini 29711.2.17 Lanceocercata – The “Marsupials” Among the Phasmatodea 29711.2.18 Lonchodinae 29911.2.19 Necrosciinae 30011.3 The Phasmatodean Fossil Record 30011.4 Phasmatodea as Research Tools 30211.5 Importance to Human Society 304References 30412 Biodiversity of Dermaptera 315Fabian Haas12.1 Epizoic Dermaptera 31512.2 Structure and Function 31812.3 Locomotion 31912.4 Distribution 31912.5 Development and Reproduction 32312.6 Behavior 32312.6.1 Mating Behavior and Maternal Care 32312.6.2 Defense 32412.6.3 Feeding 32412.7 Parasitism and Symbiosis 32412.8 Fossils and Research History 32412.9 Overview of Taxa 32512.9.1 Lower Dermaptera 32512.9.2 Higher Dermaptera 32612.10 Societal and Scientific Importance 32612.10.1 Plant Pests, Biological Control Agents, and General Nuisances 32612.10.2 Medical, Veterinary, and Forensic Importance 32612.10.3 Invasive Alien Species 32712.10.4 Pollination and Other Ecological Services 32712.10.5 Research Tools 32712.10.6 Conservation – Vanishing Species 32812.10.7 Cultural Legacy 328Acknowledgments 328References 32813 Biodiversity of Grylloblattodea and Mantophasmatodea 335Monika J. B. Eberhard, Sean D. Schoville and Klaus‐Dieter Klass13.1 Grylloblattodea 33613.1.1 Morphology and Biology 33613.1.2 Overview of Taxa 34113.2 Mantophasmatodea 34313.2.1 Morphology and Biology 34313.2.2 Overview of Taxa 34613.2.2.1 Tanzaniophasmatidae 34913.2.2.2 Mantophasmatidae 34913.2.2.3 Tyrannophasma/Praedatophasma Clade 35013.2.2.4 Austrophasmatidae 35013.3 Fossil Record 35113.4 Conclusions 352Acknowledgments 353References 35314 Biodiversity of Blattodea – the Cockroaches and Termites 359Marie Djernæs14.1 Overview of Taxa 36214.1.1 Superfamily Corydioidea 36314.1.1.1 Family Corydiidae 36314.1.1.2 Family Nocticolidae 36514.1.2 Superfamily Blaberoidea 36614.1.2.1 Family Ectobiidae 36614.1.2.2 Family Blaberidae 36814.1.3 Superfamily Blattoidea 36914.1.3.1 Family Blattidae 36914.1.3.2 Family Lamproblattidae 37014.1.3.3 Family Tryonicidae 37114.1.3.4 Family Anaplectidae 37114.1.3.5 Family Cryptocercidae 37114.1.3.6 Termites 37114.2 Societal Importance 37314.2.1 Cockroaches and Science 37314.2.2 Cockroaches as Pests 37414.2.3 Cockroaches as Food, Feed, and Medicine 37514.2.4 Pet and Feeder Species 37614.2.5 Ecological Importance 37614.2.6 Conservation Status 377References 37715 Biodiversity of Mantodea 389Frank Wieland and Gavin J. Svenson15.1 Morphological and Biological Diversity 39115.2 Phylogeny and Classification 39615.2.1 Acanthopidae 39615.2.2 Acontistidae 39615.2.3 Amorphoscelidae 39715.2.4 Angelidae 39815.2.5 Chaeteessidae 39815.2.6 Coptopterygidae 39915.2.7 Empusidae 39915.2.8 Epaphroditidae 39915.2.9 Eremiaphilidae 40015.2.10 Galinthiadidae 40015.2.11 Hymenopodidae 40115.2.12 Iridopterygidae 40115.2.13 Liturgusidae 40115.2.14 Mantidae 40215.2.15 Mantoididae 40215.2.16 Metallyticidae 40315.2.17 Photinaidae 40315.2.18 Stenophyllidae 40415.2.19 Tarachodidae 40415.2.20 Thespidae 40415.2.21 Toxoderidae 40515.2.22 Incertae Sedis 40515.2.23 Suprafamilial Groups 40515.2.23.1 Acanthopoidea 40515.2.23.2 Artimantodea 40515.2.23.3 Cernomantodea 40615.2.23.4 Eumantodea 40615.2.23.5 Mantidea 40615.2.23.6 Mantoidea 40615.2.23.7 Mantomorpha 40615.2.23.8 Neomantodea 40615.3 Morphological Convergence and Ecomorphs 40615.4 Conclusions 407References 40716 Biodiversity of Psocoptera 417Edward L. Mockford16.1 Classification 41816.2 Overview of the Psocoptera 42216.2.1 Suborder Trogiomorpha 42216.2.1.1 Infraorder Atropetae 42316.2.1.2 Infraorder Psocatropetae 43416.2.1.3 Infraorder Prionoglaridetae 43416.2.2 Suborder Troctomorpha 43416.2.2.1 Infraorder Nanopsocetae 43416.2.2.2 Infraorder Amphientometae 43616.2.2.3 Superfamily Amphientomoidea 43616.2.2.4 Superfamily Electrentomoidea 43716.2.3 Suborder Psocomorpha 43816.2.3.1 Infraorder Archipsocetae 43816.2.3.2 Infraorder Caeciliusetae 43816.2.3.3 Infraorder Homilopsocidea 44116.2.3.4 Infraorder Philotarsetae 44316.2.3.5 Infraorder Epipsocetae 44416.2.3.6 Infraorder Psocetae 44516.3 Summary of Diversity of the Psocoptera and Predictions 44716.4 The Importance to Humans of Psocopteran Biodiversity 448Acknowledgments 448References 44917 Biodiversity of Ectoparasites: Lice (Phthiraptera) and Fleas (Siphonaptera) 457Terry D. Galloway17.1 Phthiraptera – The Parasitic Lice 45817.2 Siphonaptera – The Fleas 46517.3 Medical and Veterinary Importance 47417.3.1 Lice 47417.3.2 Fleas 47517.4 Community Diversity of Lice and Fleas 47717.5 Conservation of Lice and Fleas 478Acknowledgments 479References 47918 Biodiversity of Thysanoptera 483Laurence A. Mound18.1 What Are Thrips? 48418.2 Family Diversity 48418.3 The Lives of Thrips 48618.4 Thrips Around the World 48718.5 Thrips as Research Targets 48818.6 Structural Diversity of Thrips 49118.7 Thrips as Pests 49318.8 Thrips and Human Life 49418.9 Thrips Information Sources 495References 49619 The Diversity of the True Hoppers (Hemiptera: Auchenorrhyncha) 501Charles R. Bartlett, Lewis L. Deitz, Dmitry A. Dmitriev, Allen F. Sanborn, Adeline Soulier‐Perkinand Matthew S. Wallace19.1 Overview of the Auchenorrhyncha 51119.1.1 Cicadomorpha 51119.1.1.1 Superfamily Cicadoidea – The Cicadas: Cicadidae and Tettigarctidae 51619.1.1.2 Superfamily Cercopoidea – Spittlebugs or Froghoppers 51819.1.1.3 Superfamily Membracoidea – Leafhoppers and Treehoppers 52119.1.2 Fulgoromorpha 53019.1.2.1 Superfamily Fulgoroidea – The Planthoppers 53619.2 Prospectus 549Acknowledgments 550References 55120 The Biodiversity of Sternorrhyncha: Scale Insects, Aphids, Psyllids, and Whiteflies 591Nate B. Hardy20.1 Sternorrhyncha and Society 59120.1.1 Economic Importance 59120.1.2 Ecological Importance 59320.1.3 Existential Importance 59320.2 Taxonomic Diversity of Sternorrhyncha 59320.2.1 Phylogeny and Classification 59320.2.1.1 Aphidoidea 59420.2.1.2 Aleyrodoidea 59420.2.1.3 Coccoidea 59520.2.1.4 Psylloidea 59520.3 Functional Diversity of Sternorrhyncha 59620.3.1 Trophic Diversity 59620.3.1.1 Phloem Feeding 59620.3.1.2 Not Phloem Feeding 59620.3.1.3 Trophic‐Breadth Variation 59620.3.2 Trophic Evolution 59720.3.3 Endosymbiosis 59820.3.4 Endosymbiont Diversity 59820.3.4.1 Endosymbiont Phylogenetic Diversity 59820.3.4.2 Endosymbiont Functional Diversity 60220.3.5 Endosymbiont Evolution 60420.3.5.1 Ecological Speciation 60520.3.5.2 Conflictual Speciation 60620.3.6 Life‐Cycle Diversity 60720.3.6.1 Aphid Soldiers and Eusocial Societies 60820.3.6.2 Life‐Cycle Evolution 60920.3.7 Genetic‐System Diversity 61020.3.7.1 Holocentric Chromosomes 61020.3.7.2 Sex Determination and Parthenogenesis 61020.3.7.3 Sex Ratio 61120.3.7.4 Supernumerary Chromosomes 61320.3.8 Genetic‐System Evolution 61320.3.8.1 What Sternorrhyncha Can Tell Us About the Evolution of Sex 61320.3.8.2 What Sternorrhyncha Can Tell Us About the Evolution of Genetic Systems 61420.4 Conclusions 615Acknowledgments 616References 61621 Biodiversity of the Neuropterida (Insecta: Neuroptera, Megaloptera, and Raphidioptera) 627John D. Oswald and Renato J. P. Machado21.1 Phylogeny 62821.2 Geological Age 62821.3 Metamorphosis and Life Stages 62921.3.1 Adults 62921.3.2 Eggs and Oviposition 63021.3.3 Larvae 63221.3.4 Pupae 63321.4 Biology 63421.5 Distribution 63621.6 Overview of Orders and Families 63721.6.1 Order Megaloptera 64221.6.1.1 Family Corydalidae 64221.6.1.2 Family Sialidae 64221.6.2 Order Neuroptera 64421.6.2.1 Family Ascalaphidae 64421.6.2.2 Family Berothidae 64521.6.2.3 Family Chrysopidae 64521.6.2.4 Family Coniopterygidae 64721.6.2.5 Family Dilaridae 64721.6.2.6 Family Hemerobiidae 64921.6.2.7 Family Ithonidae 64921.6.2.8 Family Mantispidae 65021.6.2.9 Family Myrmeleontidae 65121.6.2.10 Family Nemopteridae 65221.6.2.11 Family Nevrorthidae 65321.6.2.12 Family Nymphidae 65321.6.2.13 Family Osmylidae 65521.6.2.14 Family Psychopsidae 65621.6.2.15 Family Sisyridae 65621.6.3 Order Raphidioptera 65721.6.3.1 Family Inocelliidae 65721.6.3.2 Family Raphidiidae 65721.7 Societal Importance 65821.8 Scientific Importance 659Acknowledgments 660References 66022 Biodiversity of Strepsiptera 673Jeyaraney Kathirithamby22.1 Family Bahiaxenidae 67822.2 Suborder Mengenillidia 67822.2.1 Family Mengenillidae 67822.3 Suborder Stylopidia 68122.3.1 Family Corioxenidae 68522.4 Infraorder Stylopiformia 68522.4.1 Family Myrmecolacidae 68522.4.2 Family Lychnocolacidae 68822.4.3 Family Stylopidae 68822.4.4 Family Xenidae 68922.4.5 Family Bohartillidae 69022.4.6 Family Elenchidae 69122.4.7 Family Halictophagidae 69222.5 Conclusions 694Acknowledgments 694References 69423 Biodiversity of Mecoptera 705Wesley J. Bicha23.1 Suborder Nannomecoptera 70623.1.1 Family Nannochoristidae 70623.2 Suborder Pistillifera 70723.2.1 Infraorder Raptipedia 70723.2.1.1 Family Bittacidae 70723.2.2 Infraorder Opisthogonopora 70923.2.2.1 Group Boreomorpha 71023.2.2.2 Group Meropomorpha 71123.2.2.3 Group Panorpomorpha 71123.3 Societal Value of Mecoptera 71523.4 Scientific Value of Mecoptera 71623.5 Conclusion 716References 716Part III Perspectives 72124 The Fossil History of Insect Diversity 723Conrad C. Labandeira24.1 Importance of the Insect Fossil Record 72424.2 Types of Insect Diversity Past and Present 72524.2.1 Taxonomic and Taxic Diversity 72524.2.2 Ecological Diversity 73024.2.3 Biotal Diversity 73324.2.4 Plant–Insect Interactional Diversity 73524.2.4.1 Short‐Term Studies 74624.2.4.2 Intermediate‐Term Studies 74624.2.4.3 Long‐Term Studies 74724.2.4.4 Very Long‐Term Studies 74724.2.5 Morphological Diversity 74924.2.5.1 Size Disparity 75324.2.5.2 Structural Disparity 75324.2.5.3 Developmental Disparity 75724.2.5.4 Key Innovations 75724.2.6 Functional Diversity 76024.2.6.1 Functional Feeding Groups 76024.2.6.2 Lacustrine Ecospace Occupation 76024.2.6.3 Parasitoids and Trophic Roles in Food Webs 76124.2.7 Behavioral Diversity 76124.2.7.1 Sociality 76224.2.7.2 Mimicry and Warning Coloration 76224.2.7.3 Pollen‐Collection Strategies 76324.3 Biodiversity Changes Through Time 76524.3.1 Long‐Term Environmental Change 76524.3.1.1 Mid‐Paleozoic Beginnings of Terrestrial Ecosystems 76524.3.1.2 Initial Taxic Radiation of Insects 76524.3.1.3 Late Paleozoic Expansion of Herbivore Functional Feeding Groups 76624.3.1.4 Ecological and Behavioral Changes from the Mesozoic Lacustrine Revolution 76724.3.1.5 The Parasitoid Revolution 76724.3.1.6 Biodiversity Ramifications of the Early Expansion of Angiosperms 76824.3.1.7 Expansion of the Grassland Biome 76924.3.2 Short‐Term Environmental Change 77024.3.2.1 Permian–Triassic Global Crisis and Reductions in Biodiversity 77024.3.2.2 Cretaceous–Paleogene Global Crisis and Reductions in Biodiversity 77124.3.2.3 Biodiversity Realignments During the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum 77224.3.2.4 End‐Pleistocene Extinctions and Their Meaning for the Modern World 77224.4 Current Societal Aspects of Fossil Insect Biodiversity 77324.4.1 Human Interests and Biases 77324.4.2 Tools for Understanding Evolutionary and Ecological Diversification 77324.4.3 Detection of Insect‐Borne Diseases in the Fossil Record 77424.4.4 Insect Herbivory and Global Warming 77524.4.5 The Current Biodiversity Crisis 77524.5 Conclusions 77624.5.1 The Importance of the Insect Fossil Record for Understanding Insect Diversity 77624.5.2 The Five Fundamental Types of Diversity in the Insect Fossil Record 77624.5.3 The Effect of Long‐Term Environmental Change on Insect Diversity 77624.5.4 The Effect of Short‐Term Environmental Changes on Insect Diversity 77624.5.5 How Fossil Insect Biodiversity Affects Us All 776Acknowledgments 776References 77725 Phenotypes in Insect Biodiversity Research 789István Mikó and Andrew R. Deans25.1 Phenotype Data: Past and Present 78925.2 Phenotype Data: Present and Future 79125.2.1 Biological Ontologies 79125.2.2 Ontologies in Biodiversity Research 79225.2.2.1 Referencing a Glossary 79225.2.2.2 Generating Logically Consistent Phenotypes 79325.2.2.3 Reasoning Across Phenotype Data 79425.3 Challenges and Future Directions 79525.3.1 Social Challenges to “Standardization” 79525.3.2 Ontology Development Barriers 79525.3.3 Ontology Implementation Barriers 79625.3.4 Phenotype Complexity 79625.3.5 Communicating Primarily with Semantic Phenotypes 79625.3.6 No Clearinghouse for Phenotype Data 79625.3.7 Reasoning Challenges 797Acknowledgments 797References 79726 Global Change and Insect Biodiversity in Agroecosystems 801David R. Gillespie, Matthew J. W. Cock, Thibaud Decaëns, Philippa J. Gerard, Sandra D. Gillespie,Juan J. Jiménez and Owen O. Olfert26.1 Global Change 80126.2 Insect Biodiversity in Agriculture 80326.2.1 What Do We Mean By “Biodiversity”? 80426.3 Effects of Global Change on Biodiversity – What Do We Know? 80526.3.1 Crop Pests and Natural Enemies 80526.3.1.1 Distribution 80526.3.1.2 Community Composition 80826.3.1.3 Other Responses to Climate Change 81026.3.2 Soil Function and Topsoil Maintenance 81226.3.3 Implications of Global Change for Crop Pollination 81426.3.3.1 Evidence for Importance of Biodiversity for Pollination Service to Crops 81426.3.3.2 Expected Effects of Global Change on Pollinator Diversity – Consequences for Society 81426.4 Island Versus Continent Contrasts 81526.4.1 Impacts on Biodiversity of Insects in Island Agroecosystems 81626.5 Tropical Versus Temperate Issues 81826.5.1 Climate Tolerances in Tropical and Temperate Species 81926.6 Some Concluding Viewpoints 822References 82327 Digital Photography and the Democratization of Biodiversity Information 839Stephen A. Marshall27.1 The Digital Insect Collection 84027.2 Digital Images in Interactive Keys 84427.3 Digital Photography and Taxonomic Revisions 84527.4 Organization of Digital Insect Collections 84827.5 Conclusions 849References 84928 Bee (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Anthophila) Diversity Through Time 851Sophie Cardinal28.1 Morphological Diversity 85128.2 Behavioral Diversity: Social, Nesting, and Floral Hosts 85228.3 Geographical Diversity 85228.4 Evolutionary History and Diversification 85328.5 Conclusions 863References 86429 Insect Biodiversity in Culture and Art 869Gene Kritsky and Jessee J. Smith29.1 Prehistory 87029.2 Insects in the Ancient World 87129.3 The Cult of Artemis: A Case Study 87429.4 Roman Insect Art 87529.5 Ancient China 87629.6 Religions of India 87729.7 Post‐Classical Era 87729.8 The Americas 88029.9 Modern History 88229.10 Japanese Art 88429.11 Language and Literature 88629.12 Insects in Music 88929.13 Insects in Cinema 89129.14 Akihabara Culture: Toys, Video Games, and Anime from Modern Japan 89229.15 Present and Future Trends in Cultural Entomology 89429.16 The Internet Age 895References 896Index of Arthropod Taxa Arranged by Order and Family 899Index of Arthropod Taxa Arranged Alphabetically 943Index of non‐Arthropod Taxa Arranged Alphabetically 975Subject Index 979