Infancy

Dana Gross is professor of psychology at St. Olaf College, where she teaches infant development and developmental psychology and leads short-term study-abroad programs. She has been a faculty member at St. Olaf since 1988. In teaching, research, and scholarship, she emphasizes the interplay of nature and nurture, contextual variations development, practical applications of research findings, ethical community engagement, and policy considerations. She has developed short-term study abroad courses in India, China, and Norway, as well as student assignments to promote global learning in her on-campus courses.

• AcknowledgmentsPrefaceChapter 1: Beliefs about Babies: Historical Perspectives on Children and ChildhoodChapter OverviewWhy Do We Study Infants?Development as TransformationImpact of Early ExperienceResearch Methods and ToolsInterdisciplinary CollaborationRecurring Themes in the Study of Child DevelopmentThe Path of Development: Stages versus Continuous ChangeHeredity and the EnvironmentActive or Passive Development?Typical and Atypical DevelopmentCulture and Context in Historical PerspectiveBox 1.1. Studying Children and Childhood with a Historical LensHistorical Perspectives on Infancy and Early ChildhoodHistorical Studies of Children and ChildhoodViews of ChildrenFamily LifeThe Development of the Field of Child DevelopmentChild Development Research, Theory, and PracticeG. Stanley HallMaria MontessoriJohn WatsonArnold GesellAnna FreudMargaret MahlerMyrtle McGrawJohn Bowlby and Mary AinsworthChild Development OrganizationsWrapping It Up: Summary and Conclusion | Think About It: Questions for Reading and Discussion | Key WordsChapter 2: Research MethodsChapter OverviewIssues in Research with InfantsBox 2.1. Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion in Infant ResearchEthical ConcernsBehavioral StateBox 2.2. Online Data Collection from Babies at HomeInference and InterpretationResearch SettingsNaturalistic StudiesLaboratory StudiesResearch DesignsCase Studies and Single-Subject ResearchQuasi-Experimental StudiesExperimental StudiesResearch Designs for Studying DevelopmentLongitudinal ResearchCross-Sectional ResearchMicrogenetic ResearchResearch MeasuresPsychophysiological ResponsesParental ReportsWrapping It Up : Summary and Conclusion | Think About It: Questions for Reading and Discussion | Key WordsChapter 3: Genetics, Conception, and Prenatal DevelopmentChapter OverviewGenetics and the Human GenomeGenetic Diseases and DisordersGenetics and Prenatal DevelopmentConceptionSex Chromosome AbnormalitiesTwins and Other MultiplesInfertility and Assisted ReproductionPrenatal DevelopmentBox 3.1. Overview of the Stages of Prenatal DevelopmentThe Germinal Stage, Fertilization to Two WeeksThe Embryonic Stage, Two to Eight WeeksThe Fetal Stage, Eight Weeks to Birth (38 Weeks)Congenital AnomaliesBox 3.2. Prenatal Effects of the Zika VirusNeural Tube DefectsCongenital Heart DefectsPrenatal Screening, Diagnosis, and TreatmentPreimplantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD)UltrasoundMaternal Blood ScreeningChorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)AmniocentesisFetal EchocardiographyFetal TherapyPrenatal InfluencesNutritionAlcohol and DrugsDiseaseStressEnvironmental HazardsPaternal InfluencesWrapping It Up: Summary and Conclusion | Think About It: Questions for Reading and Discussion | Key WordsChapter 4: Birth and the NewbornChapter OverviewThe Birth Process: Stages of ChildbirthThe First Stage: Contractions, Dilatation, and EffacementThe Second Stage: Delivery of the InfantThe Third Stage: Placental ExpulsionComplications of ChildbirthBox 4.1. Standards for Improving Quality of Maternal and Newborn Care in Health FacilitiesFailure to ProgressBreech PresentationPreterm BirthBox 4.2. Technologies and Procedures in the Neonatal Intensive Care UnitLow BirthweightPost-Term BirthTwins and Other Multiple BirthsChildbirth OptionsMedical InterventionsHospital or Home?Box 4.3. Pros and Cons of Water BirthsNeonatal AssessmentAssessment at BirthReflexesSensory AbilitiesAdaptations During the Neonatal PeriodBox 4.4. Kangaroo Care for Newborn Infants and Their ParentsWrapping It Up: Summary and Conclusion | Think About It: Questions for Reading and Discussion | Key WordsChapter 5: Physical Growth, Health, and NutritionChapter OverviewPhysical GrowthMeasuring and Predicting GrowthFailure to ThriveBrain DevelopmentMaltreatment and the BrainBox 5.1. Risk Factors for Child MaltreatmentBox 5.2. Long-Term Effects of InstitutionalizationHealth and SafetyNewborn ScreeningScreening for Lead PoisoningBox 5.3. Reducing Young Children's Exposure to LeadInfant MortalityCommon Illnesses and ImmunizationsAccidental InjuriesSudden Unexplained Infant DeathBox 5.4. Recommendations to Reduce the Risk of SIDS and ASSBNutrition and FeedingNutritional Requirements in InfancyBreast MilkBox 5.5. Practice Guidelines in Baby-Friendly HospitalsNutritional Requirements in ToddlerhoodThe Problem of MalnutritionWrapping It Up: Summary and Conclusion | Think About It: Questions for Reading and Discussion | Key WordsChapter 6: Sensation, Perception, and Motor DevelopmentChapter OverviewTheories of Infant PerceptionVisionNewborn AbilitiesPerceiving ObjectsPerceiving DepthPerceiving Images on ScreensBox 6.1. Learning to Perceive Digital MediaHearingLocating SoundsPerceiving SpeechPerceiving MusicMusic PerceptionTouchReflexesPainTasteInnate PreferencesEffects of ExperienceSmellInnate PreferencesEffects of ExperienceOther Senses, Intermodal and Cross-Modal PerceptionOther SensesIntermodal AbilitiesBox 6.2. Multisensory Processing and AttentionCross-Modal AbilitiesMotor DevelopmentAssessing Motor DevelopmentFine Motor Skills: Reaching, Grasping, and Using ToolsBox 6.3. Infants and Toddlers Use Motor Skills to Make MusicGross Motor Skills: Sitting, Crawling, and WalkingThe Cultural ContextWrapping It Up: Summary and Conclusion | Think About It: Questions for Reading and Discussion | Key WordsChapter 7: Play and Foundational Theories about Cognitive DevelopmentChapter OverviewThe Development of PlayPlay with ObjectsBox 7.1. Adapting Play for Infants and ToddlersSocial PlayPretend/Symbolic PlayPiaget’s Theory: Constructing and Representing KnowledgeSensorimotor and Preoperational IntelligenceObject PermanenceThe A-Not-B ErrorUnderstanding and Using Representations of SpaceVygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory: Learning as a Social ActivityThe Zone of Proximal DevelopmentGuided ParticipationBox 7.2. The Suzuki Method for Learning to Play a Musical InstrumentWrapping It Up: Summary and Conclusion | Think About It: Questions for Reading and Discussion | Key WordsChapter 8: Cognitive Science and IntelligenceChapter OverviewCognitive Science PerspectivesAttentionGaze Following, Joint Attention, and Theory of MindMemoryBox 8.1. The Effect of Television and Digital Media on Infants and ToddlersCategorizationDefining and Testing Intelligence in InfancyTraditional TestsInformation-Processing AssessmentsBox 8.2. Using Cognitive Science Measures to Assess Infant DevelopmentWrapping It Up: Summary and Conclusion | Think About It: Questions for Reading and Discussion | Key WordsChapter 9: Language and CommunicationChapter OverviewStudying Language DevelopmentWhy Language MattersSystems of LanguageTheoretical FoundationsPrelinguistic CommunicationReceptivity to LanguageSpeech PerceptionEarly Production: BabblingGestural CommunicationSemantic DevelopmentMilestones in the Acquisition of MeaningOne-Word UtterancesBox 9.1. Cultural Influences on Language LearningExplaining Early Word LearningThe Acquisition of GrammarMultiword UtterancesOverregularizationCross-Linguistic Studies of the Acquisition of GrammarAtypical Language DevelopmentMeasuring Language DevelopmentEarly Language Delay and Specific Language ImpairmentLanguage and Communication in Children with Autism Spectrum DisorderBox 9.2. New Tools for Studying Language and Communication in Children with Autism Spectrum DisorderWrapping It Up: Summary and Conclusion | Think About It: Questions for Reading and Discussion | Key WordsChapter 10: Relationships and Social DevelopmentChapter OverviewInfant–Caregiver RelationshipsPatterns of Care and Interaction: Beliefs About InfantsCross-Cultural Differences in Mothers’ InvolvementFather–Infant Caregiving and InteractionCross-Cultural Differences in Fathers’ InvolvementPostpartum DepressionBox 10.1. Postpartum Depression in FathersThe Influence of Culture and ContextHow Postpartum Depression Affects InfantsIntervention ApproachesDeveloping Trust, Becoming AttachedBowlby’s Theory of Infant–Caregiver AttachmentAssessing Attachment RelationshipsAttachment and Subsequent DevelopmentBox 10.2. The Mother–Child Longitudinal Study of AttachmentSibling RelationshipsBecoming a SiblingHow Siblings Contribute to DevelopmentPeer Relationships and FriendshipPeer InteractionsFriendshipWrapping It Up: Summary and Conclusion | Think About It: Questions for Reading and Discussion | Key WordsChapter 11: Temperament, Emotions, and the SelfChapter OverviewTemperamentDefining and Measuring TemperamentTemperament and BiologyTemperament and AttachmentBox 11.1. Goodness of Fit: Temperament, Attachment, and Peer InteractionsTemperament and PersonalityEmotionsTheories of EmotionsBox 11.2. Theories of Emotional DevelopmentExpressing EmotionsPerceiving EmotionsParent Influences on Emotion DevelopmentRegulating EmotionsDeveloping and Using Social EmotionsThe SelfRecognizing the SelfBox 11.3. Evaluating the Self and Self-EsteemWrapping It Up: Summary and Conclusion | Think About It: Questions for Reading and Discussion | Key WordsChapter 12: Childcare and Early InterventionChapter OverviewChildcareMaternal EmploymentParental Leave PoliciesChildcare ArrangementsBox 12.1. What Does Quality Childcare Look Like?Effects of Childcare: The NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth DevelopmentIncluding Children With Disabilities in ChildcareEarly InterventionPoverty as a Risk Factor: Implications for Prevention and InterventionEarly Intervention Through Childcare and PreschoolEarly Head StartMeasuring the Impact of Early Childhood InterventionWrapping It Up: Summary and Conclusion | Think About It: Questions for Reading and Discussion | Key WordsGlossaryReferencesCreditsIndexAbout the Author

For years, I have used Dana Gross’s text Infancy: Development from Birth to Age Three in my infant development course. This thorough yet accessible text uses contemporary science and opportunities for application to provide my students with the theoretical frameworks underlying infant development. Students are also exposed to important information about developmental domains, the role of culture, and policy implications for infant development. I look forward to continuing to use this engaging textbook with my undergraduate students for years to come.