Hydrogen Energetics

Roman J. Press, PhD, is an automotive industry professional with decades of experience in alternative fuel systems, most recently served as a Distinguished Researcher at the Rochester Institute of Technology, where his research and teaching focused on innovative alternative fuel solutions. Dr. Press has also held positions at General Motors, Quantum Technologies, and Xerox. His expertise is further solidified by numerous patents focusing on liquid/gaseous metering and the publication of college textbooks covering hydrogen power.

• Preface xiii1 Introduction 11.1 Terminology 11.2 Sustainability and Climate Change 41.3 Decarbonization 41.4 Climate Change 51.5 Energy Ethics 101.6 Hydrogen Economy: Pros and Cons 111.6.1 Incentives for Transition to Hydrogen 111.6.2 Existing Limitations 122 Energy Resources 152.1 Nonrenewable Energy Sources 152.1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages 152.1.2 Coal 162.1.3 Petroleum 172.1.4 Natural Gas 192.1.4.1 Advantages and Disadvantages 192.2 Renewable Energy 222.2.1 Solar Energy 242.2.1.1 Solar Energy Benefits 252.2.1.2 Solar Energy Disadvantages 252.2.1.3 Solar Cells 262.2.2 Wind Energy 262.2.2.1 Advantages of Wind Power 282.2.2.2 Disadvantages of Wind Power 282.2.3 Hydroelectric Power 282.2.3.1 Advantages of Hydroelectricity 292.2.3.2 Disadvantages of Hydroelectricity 292.2.4 Biomass Energy 302.2.5 Biomass Energy from Landfills and Biofuels 322.2.5.1 Benefits of Biofuels 332.2.5.2 Disadvantages of Biofuels 332.2.5.3 Summary of Hay as a Biofuel 332.2.6 Geothermal Energy: Harnessing the Earth’s Heat 342.2.6.1 Types of Geothermal Resources 342.2.6.2 Natural Hydrothermal Features 352.2.6.3 Advantages of Geothermal Energy 352.2.6.4 Challenges of Geothermal Energy 362.2.7 Geothermal Heating: Tapping into Earth’s Stable Temperatures 362.2.7.1 How Geothermal Heating Works 362.2.7.2 Components of Geothermal Heat Pump Systems 362.2.7.3 Efficiency Comparison 362.2.7.4 Advantages of Geothermal Heating 372.2.7.5 Challenges 372.2.8 Ocean Energy: Harnessing the Power of Tides 372.2.8.1 Tidal Energy Mechanisms 382.2.8.2 Environmental Impact and Global Presence 382.2.8.3 Global Renewable Energy Trends 392.3 Nuclear Energy: An Alternative Power Source 392.3.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Nuclear Power 402.3.1.1 Advantages of Nuclear Power 402.3.1.2 Disadvantages of Nuclear Power 402.3.2 Nuclear Fission and Uranium Enrichment 412.3.3 Fusion: The Future of Nuclear Energy 423 Hydrogen Properties 473.1 General Characteristics and Physical Properties of Hydrogen 473.1.1 Chemical Properties of Hydrogen 503.1.2 Chemical Reactions of Hydrogen 513.1.3 Health Effects of Hydrogen 523.1.4 Hydrogen Isotopes 533.2 Hydrogen Bonding 543.3 Occurrence of Hydrogen 543.4 Comparing Hydrogen to Other Fuels 554 Fuel Cells: Essential Information 594.1 Overview 594.2 FC Technologies: Classification and Comparison 604.2.1 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells 604.2.1.1 PEMFC Fabrication Hardware 634.2.1.2 Membrane Electrode Assembly 634.2.1.3 The Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) 644.2.1.4 The Electrodes 644.2.1.5 Bipolar Plates 644.2.1.6 The PEMFC Stack 654.2.1.7 Electrode Poisoning 664.2.1.8 FC Reformers 664.2.2 Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC) 674.2.3 Electrodes in AFCs 684.2.4 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC) 694.2.5 Electrodes in MCFCs 714.2.6 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) 714.2.7 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) 724.2.8 Electrodes in SOFCs 744.2.9 Direct Methanol Fuel Cell 754.3 FC Architecture 764.3.1 FCPS Subsystems 764.3.2 Balance of Plant 784.3.3 Membraneless FC 795 Hydrogen Technology Essentials 815.1 Hydrogen Safety 815.1.1 Liquid Hydrogen Safety 835.1.2 Flammability 835.1.2.1 Containers 845.1.2.2 Tanks 845.1.3 Transferring Liquid Hydrogen 845.1.3.1 Shipment 855.1.4 Safety Considerations 855.1.5 Hydrogen–Ammonia Blend Safety 865.1.6 Codes and Standards for Safety 885.1.7 Hydrogen Sensors 885.1.8 Hydrogen Safety-Related Properties 895.2 Energy Storage Technologies 895.2.1 Chemical Storage 905.2.1.1 Flow Batteries 905.2.1.2 Powerpaste 905.2.1.3 Power to Gas 915.2.1.4 Power to Liquid 925.2.1.5 Pumped-hydro Storage 925.2.1.6 Underground Hydrogen Storage 935.2.1.7 Aluminum as an Energy Source 945.2.1.8 Home Energy Storage 955.2.1.9 Grid Electricity and Power Stations 955.2.1.10 Vehicle-to-Grid Storage 955.2.1.11 Economics of Energy Storage 955.3 Hydrogen Storage for Transportation 965.3.1 Storage of Hydrogen as a Compressed Gas 985.3.2 Storage of Hydrogen as a Liquid 1005.3.3 Solid Hydrogen Storage: Chemical Methods 1025.3.4 Reversible Metal Hydride–Hydrogen Storage 1025.3.4.1 Metal Hydride–Hydrogen Storage 1045.3.5 Alkali Metal Hydrides 1055.3.6 Carbon Nanostructures 1055.3.7 Other Technologies 1065.4 Hydrogen Infrastructure 1075.5 Hydrogen Transportation via Pipeline 1085.6 Ammonia as an Energy Carrier 1115.6.1 Compressed Hydrogen 1135.6.2 Liquid Hydrogen 1135.7 Blending Hydrogen in Natural Gas Pipelines 1155.7.1 Methanol Transportation as a Comparison 1155.7.2 Petroleum Transportation as a Comparison 1165.7.3 Realistic Approaches for Hydrogen Transportation 1165.8 Hydrogen Bonding 1185.9 Hydrogen Extraction from Blended Mixtures 1195.9.1 Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) Technology 1195.9.2 Membrane Separation Technology 1205.9.3 Electrochemical Hydrogen Separation (EHS) 1205.9.4 Cost Analysis of Hydrogen Extraction 1206 Hydrogen Production: Current Practices and Emerging Technologies 1236.1 Hydrogen Production from Fossil Sources 1236.1.1 Steam Methane Reforming (SMR) 1236.1.1.1 Chemical Equation and Purpose 1246.1.1.2 Process Description 1246.1.2 Methane Pyrolysis 1256.1.2.1 Process Overview 1256.1.2.2 Temperature and Variations 1256.1.2.3 Chemical Reaction and Environmental Impact 1256.1.3 Coal Gasification 1266.1.3.1 Water–Gas Shift Reaction 1266.1.3.2 Hydrogen Purification 1266.1.3.3 Commercial Coal Gasification Processes 1266.1.3.4 Comparison with Steam Reforming of Natural Gas 1266.1.4 Partial Oxidation of Hydrocarbons 1276.1.4.1 Fundamentals of the Process 1276.1.4.2 Enhancing Hydrogen Content 1276.1.4.3 Application in Heavy Hydrocarbons 1276.1.5 Petroleum-Refining Operations 1286.1.5.1 Hydrogen Recovery in Refining Processes 1286.1.5.2 Environmental Impact of Conventional Hydrogen Production 1286.1.5.3 Ongoing Research and Development Efforts 1286.2 Hydrogen Production from Renewable Sources 1296.2.1 Green Hydrogen Production 1296.2.1.1 Electrolysis and Its Applications 1296.2.1.2 Challenges and Potential of Green Hydrogen 1296.2.1.3 Environmental Impact 1306.2.2 Blue Hydrogen Production 1306.2.3 Pink Hydrogen 1306.2.3.1 The Future of Nuclear-Generated Hydrogen 1316.2.4 Gray Hydrogen 1326.2.4.1 Overview of Gray Hydrogen 1326.2.4.2 Costs and Environmental Implications 1326.2.5 Turquoise Hydrogen 1326.2.5.1 Innovative Production of Turquoise Hydrogen 1326.2.6 Yellow Hydrogen 1326.2.6.1 Thermal Solar Production of Yellow Hydrogen 1326.3 Current Industrial Hydrogen Production 1336.3.1 Global Production and Market Value 1336.3.2 Industrial Methods of Hydrogen Production 1336.3.3 Electrolysis of Water 1336.3.3.1 Historical Development and Fundamentals 1336.3.3.2 Electrolysis Techniques in Hydrogen Production 1346.3.3.3 Electrolysis Reactions 1346.3.3.4 High-Pressure Electrolysis 1346.3.3.5 High-Temperature Electrolysis 1356.3.3.6 The Evolution of Electrolysis Technology 1356.3.4 Water Splitting Using Solar Energy 1356.3.4.1 Thermochemical Cycles for Water Splitting 1356.3.4.2 Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting 1366.3.4.3 Photocatalyst Development by Panasonic Corp. 1366.3.4.4 Wind Energy and Hydrogen Production 1366.3.5 Biomass Gasification with Bacteria 1376.3.6 Hydrogen as a By-product of Other Chemical Processes 1386.3.6.1 Ammonia Dissociation 1386.3.6.2 Hydrogen in Industrial Production 1396.3.7 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) Utilization for Hydrogen Production 1396.3.7.1 Composition and Utilization of LFG 1406.3.7.2 Potential for Hydrogen Production 1406.4 Traditional Hydrogen Production Methods 1406.4.1 Renewable Energy Sources in Hydrogen Production 1426.5 Conclusion 1427 Hydrogen Applications 1437.1 Current Industrial Applications 1437.1.1 Ammonia Synthesis 1437.1.2 Food and Beverage Industry 1447.1.3 Electronics Manufacturing 1447.1.4 Pharmaceutical Industry 1457.1.5 Glass, Cement, and Lime Production 1457.1.6 Polymers 1457.1.7 Metal Industry 1467.1.8 Metallic Ore Reduction 1467.1.9 Oil and Gas 1467.1.10 Methanol Production 1467.1.11 Automotive and Transportation 1477.1.12 Space-Aviation 1477.1.13 Hydrogen in Welding, Cutting, and Coating 1477.1.14 Weather Balloons 1487.1.15 Hydrogen as a Coolant 1487.1.16 Searching Gas 1497.1.17 Chemical Analysis 1497.1.18 Isotope Applications 1497.1.19 Burning Hydrogen for Electricity Generation 1497.2 FC-Specific Applications 1517.2.1 Stationary Power Production 1517.2.2 FC Transportation 1527.2.3 Well-to-Wheel Analysis 1537.2.4 Practical Transportation Applications 1547.2.5 Other Transport Applications 1547.2.6 Micropower Systems 1577.2.7 Mobile and Residential Power Systems 1587.2.8 FCs for Space and Military Applications 1597.2.9 Maritime Applications 1617.2.10 Wearable Technology and Internet of Things (IoT) 1617.2.11 Unmanned Underwater Vehicles (UUVs) 1617.2.12 Emergency and Disaster Relief 1627.3 Electric Batteries 1627.3.1 History 1627.3.2 Primary Batteries 1657.3.3 Batteries for Portable Devices 1657.3.4 Secondary Batteries 1667.3.5 Traction Battery 1687.3.6 Rechargeable Batteries 1697.3.7 Lead-Acid Batteries 1707.3.8 Lithium-ion Batteries 1717.3.9 NiMH and High-Temperature Batteries 1737.3.10 Molten Salt Battery 1747.3.11 Recharging 1757.3.11.1 Charging Infrastructure 1757.3.11.2 EV Range and Battery Evolution 1767.3.12 Battery Specifications 1767.3.12.1 Environmental Impact and Recycling 1767.4 Hydrogen Transportation 1777.4.1 FC Reformers 1777.4.2 Steam Reformer 1787.4.3 Fuel Processor 1797.4.4 FCS Architecture 1807.4.5 Power Conditioning and Controls 1817.4.6 Balance of Plant 1817.4.7 FCPS Subsystems 1817.4.8 FCPS Functions and Features 1837.4.9 FCPS Performance Characteristics 1837.4.10 Fuel Choice 1847.5 The Human Mobility in the 21st Century 1867.5.1 Electric Transportation 1867.5.2 Hybrid Electric Vehicles 1887.5.3 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles 1897.5.4 All-Electric Vehicles 1897.5.5 Comparison with ICEs 1907.5.6 Fuel Cells vs. Electric Batteries 1907.5.7 Social Influence of Autonomous Cars 1917.5.8 Employment and AVs 1927.5.9 Urban Future in the Era of AVs 1937.5.9.1 Key Transformations Induced by AVs 1937.5.9.2 Social and Economic Implications 1947.5.9.3 Transportation Efficiency 1947.5.10 Financial Implications of AVs 1947.5.11 Self-Driving Functionality and Levels of Autonomy 1957.5.12 Safety Considerations in AV Technology 1967.5.13 Cloud Network Database Establishment for AVs 1967.5.14 The Rise of AVs 1977.6 Conclusion 197Used Literature 199Index 211