Hydrogen and Fuel Cells

Prof. Detlef Stolten is the Director of the Institute of Energy Research at the Forschungszentrum Julich. Prof Stolten received his doctorate from the University of Technology at Clausthal,Germany. He served many years as a Research Scientist in the laboratories of Robert Bosch and Daimler Benz/Dornier. In 1998 he accepted the position of Director of the Institute of Materials and Process Technology at the Research Center Julich. Two years later he became Professor for Fuel Cell Technology at the University of Technology (RWTH) at Aachen. Prof. Stolten's research focuses on fuel cells, implementing results from research in innovative products, procedures and processes in collaboration with industry, contributing towards bridging the gap between science and technology. His research activities are focused on energy process engineering of SOFC and PEFC systems, i.e. electrochemistry, stack technology, process and systems engineering as well as systems analysis. Prof Stolten represents Germany in the Executive Committee of the IEA Annex Advanced Fuel Cells and is on the advisory board of the journal Fuel Cells. Prof Stolten is the Chair of the World Hydrogen Energy Conference held in May, 2010.

• Foreword xixPreface xxiList of Contributors xxvFuel cell basics1 Electrocatalysis and Catalyst Degradation Challenges in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells 3Hubert A. Gasteiger, Daniel R. Baker, Robert N. Carter, Wenbin Gu, Yuxin Liu, Frederick T. Wagner, and Paul T. YuAbstract 31.1 Introduction 31.2 Voltage Losses in State-of-the-Art Automotive PEM Fuel Cells 41.3 Catalyst Development Needs and Approaches 61.4 Catalyst Degradation via Platinum Dissolution 101.5 Carbon-Support Corrosion 111.6 Conclusion 14References 142 High-Temperature PEM Fuel Cells: Electrolytes, Cells, and Stacks 17Christoph WannekAbstract 172.1 Introduction 172.2 Approaches to Increase the Operating Temperature of Sulfonated Membranes 192.3 HT-PEFCs with Phosphoric Acid-Based Polybenzimidazole-Type Membranes 232.4 Alternative Liquid Electrolytes 332.5 Acidic Salts and Oxides 352.6 Conclusion 36References 373 Current Status of and Recent Developments in Direct Liquid Fuel Cells 41Jürgen Mergel, Andreas Glüsen, and Christoph WannekAbstract 413.1 Introduction 413.2 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells 443.3 Direct Ethanol Fuel Cells 553.4 Conclusion 57References 574 High-Temperature Fuel Cell Technology 61Gael P. G. Corre and John T. S. IrvineAbstract 614.1 Introduction 614.2 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell 654.3 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell 784.4 Thermodynamics of Fuel Cells 784.5 Fuel Cell Efficiency 80References 855 Advanced Modeling in Fuel Cell Systems: a Review of Modeling Approaches 89Matthew M. MenchAbstract 895.1 Introduction 895.2 State-of-the-Art Computational Models for Low-Temperature Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell Systems 985.3 Case Study of Water Management in PEFCs 1025.4 Future Research Needs 112Acknowledgments 113References 113Fuel Infrastructures6 Hydrogen Distribution Infrastructure for an Energy System: Present Status and Perspectives of Technologies 121Françoise BarbierAbstract 1216.1 Introduction 1216.2 Hydrogen Transport by Gaseous Pipelines 1236.3 Hydrogen Transport by Road 1296.4 Alternative Hydrogen Delivery Systems 1336.5 Stationary Bulk Storage of Hydrogen 1346.6 Supporting Technologies 1366.7 Hydrogen Fueling Stations 1416.8 Conclusion 145References 1467 Fuel Provision for Early Market Applications 149Manfred Fischedick and Andreas PastowskiAbstract 1497.1 Introduction: Hydrogen Supply Today and Tomorrow 1497.2 Balancing New Applications and Hydrogen Supply 1517.3 Criteria for Fuel Supply – Short- and Long-Term Requirements 1547.4 Hydrogen Production and Distribution 1567.5 Conclusion 164References 165Hydrogen Production Technologies8 Non-Thermal Production of Pure Hydrogen from Biomass: HYVOLUTION 169Pieternel A.M. Claassen, Truus de Vrije, Emmanuel G. Koukios, Ed W. J. van Niel, Ebru Özgür, I˙ nci Erog˘lu, Isabella Nowik, Michael Modigell, Walter Wukovits, Anton Friedl, Dominik Ochs, and Werner AhrerAbstract 1698.1 Introduction 1698.2 State of the Art 1718.3 Methodology 1718.4 The Project’s Current Relation to the State of the Art 1748.5 Conclusion 185Acknowledgments 185References 1859 Thermochemical Cycles 189Christian SattlerAbstract 1899.1 Introduction 1899.2 Historical Development 1909.3 State of Work 1919.4 Conclusion and Outlook 202Abbreviations 203References 20310 Hydrogen Production: Fundamentals and Case Study Summaries 207Kevin W. Harrison, Robert Remick, Gregory D. Martin, and Aaron HoskinAbstract 20710.1 Heating Value, Heat of Reaction, and Free Energy 20710.2 Heat of Formation and Free Energy of Formation 20910.3 Calculating Fuel Cell System Efficiency 21010.4 Water Electrolysis 21310.5 Case Studies of Wind/Hydrogen Projects 21710.6 Conclusion 225Acronyms and Abbreviations 225Acknowledgment 226References 22611 High-Temperature Water Electrolysis Using Planar Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Technology: a Review 227Mohsine Zahid, Josef Schefold, and Annabelle BrisseAbstract 22711.1 Introduction to High-Temperature Electrolysis 22811.2 History of High Temperature Steam Electrolysis 23011.3 Solid Oxide Electrolyzer Cells 23311.4 Solid Oxide Electrolyzer Stacks 23911.5 Conclusion 240References 24112 Alkaline Electrolysis – Introduction and Overview 243Detlef Stolten and Dennis KriegAbstract 24312.1 Introduction 24312.2 Definition 24412.3 The Principle 24412.4 History 24612.5 Basics of Electrolysis 24912.6 Technical Alkaline Concepts 25412.7 Status of Technology 26512.8 Conclusion 266Acknowledgments 267References 26713 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Water Electrolysis 271Tom Smolinka, Sebastian Rau, and Christopher HeblingAbstract 27113.1 Introduction 27113.2 Fundamentals of PEM Electrolysis 27213.3 Membrane Electrode Assembly 27813.4 Current Collectors, Bipolar Plates, and Stack Design 28013.5 System Design 28513.6 Conclusion 28613.7 Symbols and Abbreviations 287References 28814 Reforming and Gasification – Fossil Energy Carriers 291Jens Rostrup-NielsenAbstract 29114.1 Introduction. The Need for H2 29114.2 Basic Technologies 29214.3 Process Schemes 29614.4 Hydrogen from Coal 30114.5 Conclusion 303References 30315 Reforming and Gasification – Biomass 307Achim Schaadt, Siegfried W. Rapp, and Christopher HeblingAbstract 30715.1 Introduction 30715.2 Gasification of Biomass 308References 31816 State of the Art of Ceramic Membranes for Hydrogen Separation 321Wilhelm-A. Meulenberg, Mariya E. Ivanova, Tim van Gestel, Martin Bram, Hans-Peter Buchkremer, Detlev Stöver, and José M. SerraAbstract 32116.1 Introduction 32116.2 Microporous Membranes for H2 Separation 32216.3 Dense Ceramic Membranes for H2 Separation 33316.4 Conclusion and Outlook 344Acknowledgments 346References 34617 Hydrogen System Assessment: Recent Trends and Insights 351Joan M. Ogden 351Abstract 35117.1 Introduction 35217.2 Survey of Hydrogen System Assessment Models: Recent Trends and Insights 35417.3 Towards a Comprehensive Framework for Hydrogen Systems Analysis 367References 368Storages18 Physical Hydrogen Storage Technologies – a Current Overview 377Bert Hobein and Roland KrügerAbstract 37718.1 Introduction 37718.2 General Overview 37718.3 Fuel System Design and Specifications 38218.4 Conclusion 393References 39319 Metal Hydrides 395Etsuo AkibaAbstract 39519.1 Introduction 39519.2 Part I: Fundamentals of Metal Hydrides for Hydrogen Storage 39619.3 Part II: Applications of Metal Hydrides 40419.4 Conclusion 411References 41220 Complex Hydrides 415Andreas Borgschulte, Robin Gremaud, Oliver Friedrichs, Philippe Mauron, Arndt Remhof, and Andreas ZüttelAbstract 41520.1 Introduction 41520.2 The Structure of Complex Hydrides 41920.3 Thermodynamics of Complex Hydrides 42020.4 Organic Hydrides for Hydrogen Storage 42420.5 Hydrogen Storage Systems Using Complex and Organic Hydrides 425References 42721 Adsorption Technologies 431Barbara Schmitz and Michael HirscherAbstract 43121.1 Adsorption 43121.2 History of Adsorption 43221.3 Hydrogen Adsorption 43221.4 Materials 43321.5 Hydrogen Storage 43621.6 Total Storage Capacity 43921.7 Conclusion 441References 441Policy Perspectives, Initiatives and Cooperations22 National Strategies and Programs 449Jörg SchindlerAbstract 44922.1 The Imminent Transition to a Postfossil Energy World 44922.2 The Role of Secondary Energy Carriers 45422.3 Hydrogen in Transport 45522.4 National Strategies and Programs 45622.5 Conclusion 462Acknowledgment 462References 46323 Renewable Hydrogen Production 465Alan C. Lloyd, Ed Pike, and Anil BaralAbstract 46523.1 Introduction 46523.2 Rationale for Renewable Hydrogen 46523.3 Renewable Hydrogen Pathways 47223.4 Renewable Hydrogen Policy Drivers 48023.5 Conclusion 484Acknowledgment 485References 48624 Environmental Impact of Hydrogen Technologies 489Ibrahim Dincer and T. Nejat VezirogluAbstract 48924.1 Introduction 48924.2 Sustainable Development 49024.3 Sustainable Development and Thermodynamic Principles 49324.4 Hydrogen Versus Fossil Fuels 49724.5 Future Energy Systems 50524.6 Case Study I 50724.7 Case Study II 51524.8 Conclusion 524Acknowledgments 524Nomenclature 524References 526Strategic Analyses25 Research and Development Targets and Priorities 533Clemens Alexander Trudewind and Hermann-Josef WagnerAbstract 53325.1 Introduction 53325.2 Procedure 53425.3 Scenarios 53425.4 Investigation of Technologies 53625.5 Conclusion 546Acknowledgments 547References 54826 Life Cycle Analysis and Economic Impact 551Ulrich Wagner, Michael Beer, Jochen Habermann, and Philipp PfeifrothAbstract 55126.1 Introduction 55126.2 Definitions and Methodology 55226.3 Extraction, Conversion, and Distribution of Fuels 55326.4 Results of Process Chain Analyses 55526.5 Conclusion 563References 56427 Strategic and Socioeconomic Studies in Hydrogen Energy 567David HartAbstract 56727.1 Introduction 56727.2 Defining Socioeconomics 56827.3 Examples 56927.4 Economic Analysis 56927.5 Visions and Futures 57027.6 Social Behavior 57127.7 Drivers and Barriers 57227.8 Finance 57227.9 Business 57327.10 Conclusion 574Further Reading 57428 Market Introduction for Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies 577Marianne Haug and Hanns-Joachim NeefAbstract 57728.1 Introduction 57728.2 Market Introduction of Radical Innovations: What Do We Know from the Literature? 57928.3 The Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Road Maps: from Visions to Public/Private Coalitions 58128.4 International Cooperation: Value Added During Market Introduction? 58328.5 Market Introduction: The Status Quo 58428.6 Conclusion: Co-evolution of Technology and Policy 593References 59429 Hydrogen and Fuel Cells around the Corner – the Role of Regions and Municipalities Towards Commercialization 597Andreas Ziolek, Marieke Reijalt, and Thomas KattensteinAbstract 59729.1 Introduction 59729.2 The Role of Regional and Local Activities 59929.3 HyRaMP – Organizing Local and Regional Drivers in Europe 60429.4 Conclusion 605References 60630 Zero Regio: Recent Experience with Hydrogen Vehicles and Refueling Infrastructure 609Heinrich Lienkamp and Ashok RastogiAbstract 60930.1 Introduction 61030.2 Hydrogen Production and Quality 61130.3 Refueling Infrastructure 61430.4 FCV Fleets and Demonstration 62030.5 Socioeconomic Investigations 62330.6 Dissemination 62330.7 Conclusion 624Acknowledgments 625References 626Safety Issues31 Safety Analysis of Hydrogen Vehicles and Infrastructure 629Thomas Jordan and Wolfgang BreitungAbstract 62931.1 Motivation of Hydrogen-Specific Safety Investigations 63031.2 Phenomena 63131.3 Safety Analysis Procedures 63531.4 Scenarios 63731.5 Outlook 643References 644Further Reading 64732 Advancing Commercialization of Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Through International Cooperation of Regulations, Codes, and Standards (RCS) 649Randy DeyAbstract 64932.1 Introduction 64932.2 Hydrogen – a Part of the New Energy Mix 65032.3 Regulations, Codes, and Standards (RCS) –a Necessary Step to Commercialization 65032.4 International RCS Bodies – Responsible for the Standardization of Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies 65132.5 International Cooperation in RCS 65232.6 International Cooperation Between RCS and Pre-Normative Research (PNR) 65332.7 Hydrogen Refueling Stations (HRS) 65332.8 Conclusion 655Definitions 655References 656Existing and Emerging Markets33 Aerospace Applications of Hydrogen and Fuel Cells 661Christian Roessler, Joachim Schoemann, and Horst BaierAbstract 66133.1 Introduction and Overview of Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Use 66133.2 Possible Fuel Cell Types for Aviation 66333.3 Application in Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) 66433.4 Applications in General Aviation 67033.5 Application to Commercial Transport Aircraft 67433.6 Conclusion 677References 67834 Auxiliary Power Units for Light-Duty Vehicles, Trucks, Ships, and Airplanes 681Ralf PetersAbstract 68134.1 Operating Conditions for Auxiliary Power Units 68134.2 System Design 69134.3 Present Status of Fuel Cell-Based APU Systems 70334.4 System Evaluation 70834.5 Conclusion 709Acknowledgments 709References 71035 Portable Applications and Light Traction 715Jürgen GarcheAbstract 71535.1 Introduction 71535.2 Demand on Fuel Cells for Portable Applications 71635.3 Fuel Cell Technology 71735.4 Fuel 72035.5 Applications 721References 732Stationary Applications36 High-Temperature Fuel Cells in Decentralized Power Generation 735Robert Steinberger-Wilckens and Niels ChristiansenAbstract 73536.1 Introduction 73536.2 Distributed Generation as a Tool to Improve the Efficiency of Electricity Provision 73636.3 Fuel Cells in Distributed Generation 73936.4 Designing for High Efficiency 74136.5 Developments in the United States 74436.6 Asian and Pacific Developments 74636.7 European Developments 74836.8 Economic Prospects in DG Fuel Cell Development 75036.9 Outlook 751References 75137 Fuel Cells for Buildings 755John F. ElterAbstract 75537.1 Introduction 75537.2 Voice of the Customer37.2 Voice of the Customer 75837.3 Fuel Cell Basics and Types37.3 Fuel Cell Basics and Types 76137.4 Recent Advances 76837.5 Fuel Cell Systems 77237.6 System Control 78437.7 Conclusion 785References 786Transportation Applications38 Fuel Cell Power Trains 793Peter Froeschle and Jörg WindAbstract 79338.1 Introduction 79338.2 Layout and Functionality of the Fuel Cell Hybrid Power Train 79538.3 Technological Leaders of Fuel Cell Drive Train Development 79938.4 Next Milestones on the Way to Commercialization 80838.5 Future Outlook 809References 80939 Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engines 811H. Eichlseder, P. Grabner, and R. HeindlAbstract 81139.1 A History 81139.2 State of the Art 81439.3 New Concepts 81839.4 Future Perspectives 82539.5 Conclusion 829References 82940 Systems Analysis and Well-to-Wheel Studies 831Thomas Grube, Bernd Höhlein, Christoph Stiller, and Werner WeindorfAbstract 83140.1 Introduction 83140.2 Platinum Group Metal Requirements for Fuel Cell Systems 83240.3 Dynamic Powertrain Simulation 83640.4 Well-to-Wheel Studies 841Abbreviations 849Symbols 850References 85041 Electrification in Transportation Systems 853Arndt Freialdenhoven and Henning WallentowitzAbstract 85341.1 Driving Forces for Electric Mobility 85341.2 Design of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) 85641.3 Requirements on Players 86941.4 Conclusion 872References 873Index 875

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