Hydrocarbons in Basement Formations

M. Rafiq Islam is the President of Emertec Rs first Killam Chair in Oil and Gas. He has over 30 years of experience in teaching and research, during which time he has supervised over 150 graduate and undergraduate students and postdoctoral fellows and completed over $20 million of funded research. During his career, he has published nearly 800 research papers and dozens of books and research monographs on topics ranging from petroleum engineering to economics. He is the founding executive editor of Journal of Nature Science and Journal of Characterization and Development of Novel Materials, and serves on the editorial board of a number of journals. Previously, he held editorial positions with SPE, AIChEJ, JCPT, JPSE, and others.M.E. Hossain is a professor at Nazarbayev University, Kazakhstan, where he is in charge starting a new program in petroleum engineering. Previously, he was Canadas first Statoil Chair at Memorial University of Newfoundland (MUN), Canada. Dr. Hossain authored/co-authored nearly 200 research articles, including seven books, focusing on reservoir characterization, enhanced oil recovery (EOR), drilling engineeering and environmental sustainability.A.O. Islam is a research associate at Emertec R&D Ltd. He has been working on a number of projects related to nanomaterial and Geometrical optics. He has co-authored another book, titled: Delinearized History of Earth, which is forthcoming in early 2018.

• Foreword xv1 Introduction 11.1 Summary 11.2 Is Sustainable Petroleum Technology Possible? 21.3 Why is it Important to Know the Origin of Petroleum? 41.4 What is the Likelihood of an Organic Source? 51.5 What is the Implication of the Abiogenic Theory of Hydrocarbon? 61.6 How Important are the Fractures for Basement Reservoirs? 81.7 What are we Missing Out? 81.8 Predicting the Future? 101.9 What is the Actual Potential of Basement Hydrocarbons? 102 Organic Origin of Basement Hydrocarbons 112.0 Introduction 112.1 Sources of Hydrocarbon 132.2 Non-Conventional Sources of Petroleum Fluids 292.3 What is a Natural Energy Source? 342.4 The Science of Water and Petroleum 392.5 Comparison between Water and Petroleum 422.6 Combustion and Oxidation 572.6.1 Petroleum 592.6.2 Natural Gas 602.6.3 Natural Gas Hydrates 622.6.4 Tar Sand Bitumen 632.6.5 Coal 652.6.6 Oil Shale 652.6.7 Wax 662.6.8 Biomass 673 Non-organic Origin of Basement Hydrocarbons 693.0 Introduction 693.1 Theories of Non-organic Origin of Basement Petroleum 703.2 Formation of Magma 723.2.1 Magma Escape Routes 733.2.2 Magma Chamber 743.2.3 Types of Magma 783.2.3.1 Mafic Magma 803.2.3.2 Intermediate Magma 803.2.3.3 Felsic Magma 813.3 The Composition of Magma 823.4 The Dynamics of Magma 853.5 Water in the Mantle 1033.6 The Carbon Cycle and Hydrocarbon 1083.7 Role of Magma During the Formation of Hydrocarbon from Organic Sources 1183.8 Abiogenic Petroleum Origin Theory 1193.8.1 Diamond as Source of Hydrocarbons 1283.8.2 Oil and Gas Deposits in the Precambrian Crystalline Basement 1323.8.3 Supergiant Oil and Gas Accumulations 1383.8.4 Gas Hydrates – the Greatest Source of Abiogenic Petroleum 1424 Characterization of Basement Reservoirs 1474.0 Summary 1474.1 Introduction 1474.2 Natural and Artificial Fractures 1514.2.1 Overall in Situ Stress Orientations 1614.3 Developing Reservoir Characterization Tools for Basement Reservoirs 1624.4 Origin of Fractures 1714.5 Seismic Fracture Characterization 1784.5.1 Effects of Fractures on Normal Moveout (NMO) Velocities and P-wave Azimuthal AVO Response 1814.5.2 Effects of Fracture Parameters on Properties of Anisotropic Parameters and P-wave NMO Velocities 1824.6 Reservoir Characterization During Drilling 1854.6.1 Overbalanced Drilling 1914.6.2 Underbalanced Drilling (UBD) 1934.7 Reservoir Characterization with Image Log and Core Analysis 2024.7.1 Geophysical Logs 2054.7.1.1 Circumferential Borehole Imaging Log (CBIL) 2134.7.1.2 Petrophysical Data Analysis using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) 2204.7.2 Core Analysis 2284.8 Major Forces of Oil and Gas Reservoirs 2374.9 Reservoir Heterogeneity 2554.9.1 Filtering Permeability Data 2634.9.2 Total Volume Estimate 2674.9.3 Estimates of Fracture Properties 2684.10 Special Considerations for Shale 2685 Case Studies of Fractured Basement Reservoirs 2735.0 Summary 2735.1 Introduction 2745.2 Geophysical Tools 2825.2.1 Scale Considerations in Logging Fracture Rocks 2835.2.2 Fracture Applications of Conventional Geophysical Logs 2845.2.3 Borehole Techniques 2905.2.3.1 Borehole Wall Imaging 2915.2.4 Micro Log Analysis 2945.2.4.1 High-definition Formation Microimager 2955.2.4.2 Micro-Conductivity Imager Tool (MCI) 2995.2.4.3 Multistage Geometric Analysis Method 3005.2.5 Fracture Identifications using Neural Networks 3035.3 Petro-physics in Fracture Modeling, Special Logs and their Importance 3035.3.1 Measurement While Drilling (MWD) 3035.3.1.1 Formation Properties 3055.3.2 Mud Logging 3065.3.2.1 Objectives of Mud Logging 3065.3.2.2 Mud Losses into Natural Fractures 3075.3.3 Conventional Logging 3085.3.3.1 Resistivity Logging 3085.3.3.2 Porosity Logging 3085.3.3.3 Combination Tools 3085.3.3.4 Cased-Hole Logging 3095.3.4 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR), Ultra Sonography 3095.3.4.1 Magnetic Resonance Imaging 3095.3.4.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 3105.3.4.3 Ultra-Sonography 3115.4 Case Study of Vietnam 3125.5 Case Studies from USA 3235.5.1 Tuning/Vertical Resolution Analysis 3275.5.2 Conclusion on Case Study 3295.5.3 Geological Techniques 3295.5.3.1 Data and Methods 3305.5.3.2 Distinguishing Natural Fractures from Induced Fractures and their Well-Logging Response Features 3335.5.3.3 Analysis of well-Logging Responses to Fractures and Establishment of Interpretation Model 3345.5.3.4 Distribution of Natural Fracture 3356 Scientific Characterization of Basement Reservoirs 3376.1 Summary 3376.2 Introduction 3386.3 Characteristic Time 3426.4 Organic and Mechanical Frequencies 3496.5 Redefining Force and Energy 3516.5.1 Energy 3516.6 Natural Energy vs. Artificial Energy 3626.7 From Natural Energy to Natural Mass 3686.8 Organic Origin of Petroleum 3976.9 Scientific Ranking of Petroleum 4036.10 Placement of Basement Reservoirs in the Energy Picture 4146.10.1 Reserve Growth Potential of Basement Oil/Gas 4246.10.2 Reservoir Categories in the United States 4256.10.2.1 Eolian Reservoirs 4276.10.2.2 Interconnected Fluvial, Deltaic, and Shallow Marine Reservoirs 4346.10.2.3 Deeper Marine Shales 4406.10.2.4 Marine Carbonate Reservoirs 4436.10.2.5 Submarine Fan Reservoir 4466.10.2.6 Fluvial Reservoir 4466.10.3 Quantitative Measures of Well Production Variability 4517 Overview of Reservoir Simulation of Basement Reservoirs 4597.1 Summary 4597.2 Introduction 4607.2.1 Vugs and Fractures Together (Triple Porosity): 4657.3 Meaningful Modeling 4667.4 Essence of Reservoir Simulation 4687.4.1 Assumptions behind Various Modeling Approaches 4697.4.1.1 Material Balance Equation 4717.4.1.2 Decline Curve 4737.4.1.3 Statistical Method 4827.4.1.4 Finite Difference Methods 4877.5 Modeling Fractured Networks 4937.5.1 Introduction 4937.5.2 Double Porosity Models 4937.5.2.1 The Baker Model 4957.5.2.2 The Warren-Root Model 1963 4967.5.2.3 The Kazemi Model 4967.5.3 The De Swaan Model 4977.5.4 Modeling of Double Porosity Reservoirs 4977.5.5 Dimensionless Variables 4987.5.6 Influence of Double-Porosity Parameters 5017.5.6.1 Influence of ω: 5027.5.6.2 Influence of λ: 5027.6 Double Permeability Models 5047.6.1 Basic Assumptions for Double Permeability Model 5057.6.2 Dimensionless Variables 5077.6.3 Double Permeability Behavior when the two Layers are Producing 5087.6.4 Influence of Double Permeability Parameters 5087.6.4.1 Influence of κ and ω: 5087.6.4.2 Influence of λ: 5117.6.5 Double Permeability Behavior when only One Layer is Producing 5117.7 Reservoir Simulation Data Input 5147.8 Geological and Geophysical Modeling 5167.9 Reservoir Characterization 5187.9.1 Representative Elementary Volume, REV 5207.9.2 Fluid and Rock Properties 5237.9.2.1 Fluid Properties 5237.10 Risk Analysis and Reserve Estimations 5247.10.1 Special Conditions of Unconventional Reservoirs 5247.10.1.1 Fluid Saturation 5257.10.1.2 Transition Zones 5257.10.1.3 Permeability-Porosity Relationships 5257.10.1.4 Compressibility of the Fractured Reservoirs 5267.10.1.5 Capillary Pressure 5267.10.2 Recovery Mechanisms in Fractured Reservoirs 5287.10.2.1 Expansion 5287.10.2.2 Sudation 5307.10.2.3 Convection and Diffusion 5327.10.2.4 Multiphase Flow in the Fracture Network 5327.10.2.5 Interplay of the Recovery Processes 5337.10.2.6 Cyclic Water Injection 5337.10.2.7 Localized Deformation of Fluid Contacts 5347.10.3 Specific Aspects of a Fractured Reservoir 5357.10.3.1 Material Balance Relationships 5357.10.4 Migration of Hydrocarbons in a Fractured Reservoir and Associated Risks 5387.10.4.1 The Case of Fracturing Followed by Hydrocarbon Migration 5387.11 Recent Advances in Reservoir Simulation 5427.11.1 Speed and Accuracy 5427.11.2 New Fluid Flow Equations 5437.11.3 Coupled Fluid Flow and Geo-Mechanical Stress Model 5457.11.4 Fluid Flow Modeling under Thermal Stress 5477.11.5 Challenges of Modeling Unconventional Gas Reservoirs 5477.12 Comprehensive Modeling 5567.12.1 Governing Equations 5567.12.2 Darcy’s Model 5577.12.3 Forchheimer’s Model 5587.12.4 Modified Brinkman’s Model 5617.12.5 The Comprehensive Model 5647.13 Towards Solving Non-Linear Equations 5687.13.1 Adomian Domain Decomposition Method 5697.13.2 Governing Equations 5717.14 Adomian Decomposition of Buckley-Leverett Equation 5737.14.1 Discussion 5768 Conclusions and Recommendations 5818.1 Concluding Remarks 5818.2 Answers to the Research Questions 5828.2.1 Is Sustainable Petroleum Technology Possible? 5828.2.2 Why is it Important to Know the Origin of Petroleum? 5828.2.3 What is the Likelihood of an Organic Source for Basement Fluids? 5838.2.4 What is the Implication of the Abiogenic Theory of Hydrocarbon? 5838.2.5 How Important are the Fractures for Basement Reservoirs? 5838.2.6 What are we Missing Out? 5848.2.7 Predicting the Future? 5848.2.8 What is the Actual Potential of Basement Hydrocarbons? 5849 References and Bibliography 587Index 619