Handbook of Concentrator Photovoltaic Technology

Inbunden, Engelska, 2016

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Concentrator Photovoltaics (CPV) is one of the most promising technologies to produce solar electricity at competitive prices. High performing CPV systems with efficiencies well over 30% and multi-megawatt CPV plants are now a reality. As a result of these achievements, the global CPV market is expected to grow dramatically over the next few years reaching cumulative installed capacity of 12.5 GW by 2020. In this context, both new and consolidated players are moving fast to gain a strategic advantage in this emerging market.Written with clear, brief and self-contained technical explanations, Handbook of Concentrator Photovoltaic Technology provides a complete overview of CPV covering: the fundamentals of solar radiation, solar cells, concentrator optics, modules and trackers; all aspects of characterization and reliability; case studies based on the description of actual systems and plants in the field; environmental impact, market potential and cost analysis.CPV technology is at a key point of expansion. This timely handbook aims to provide a comprehensive assessment of all CPV scientific, technological and engineering background with a view to equipping engineers and industry professionals with all of the vital information they need to help them sustain the impetus of this encouraging technology.Key features: Uniquely combines an explanation of the fundamentals of CPV systems and components with an overview of the market place and their real-life applications.Each chapter is written by well-known industry specialists with extensive expertise in each particular field of CPV technology.Reviews the basic concepts of multi-junction solar cells and new concepts for CPV cells, highlighting the key differences between them.Demonstrates the state of the art of several CPV centres and companies.Facilitates future cost calculation models for CPV.Features extensive case studies in each chapter, including coverage of CPV modules and systems.

Produktinformation

Utgivningsdatum2016-05-27
Mått168 x 246 x 41 mm
Vikt1 293 g
FormatInbunden
SpråkEngelska
Antal sidor808
FörlagJohn Wiley & Sons Inc
ISBN9781118472965

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Carlos Algora received his B.Sc. degree in Physics in 1986 and his PhD in Physics in 1990, both from the Universidad Complutense de Madrid. He joined the Solar Energy Institute of the Technical University of Madrid in 1985 where he became Associate Professor in 1991 and a Full Professor in 2008. Since 1996 he has been the head of the III-V Semiconductors Group, which is devoted to the modelling, technology, characterization and reliability of III-V solar cells. Together with his team he has helped to develop several World efficiency record concentrator cells. He has been the main researcher of more than 40 R&D projects, has published more 230 scientific papers and has authored several book chapters.Ignacio Rey-Stolle is an Associate Professor at the Solar Energy Institute of the Technical University of Madrid, where he obtained his PhD in 2001. During his scientific career he has accumulated more than 17 years working in the field of high efficiency concentrator solar cells, during which he has contributed to several efficiency records. His research activities encompass the whole life cycle of concentrator solar cells, including design and simulation, epitaxial growth, fabrication, characterization and reliability studies. Ignacio Rey-Stolle has co-authored more than 100 scientific papers, three book chapters and one patent.

List of Contributors xixPreface xxiii1 Direct Normal Radiation 1Daryl R. Myers1.1 Concepts and Definitions 11.1.1 Orbital and Geometrical Considerations 11.1.2 The Solar Constant 21.1.3 Temporal Variations in Extraterrestrial Radiation (ETR) 31.1.4 Extraterrestrial Radiation Spectral Power Distribution 41.1.5 The Atmospheric Filter 61.2 Measuring Broadband Direct Solar Radiation 81.2.1 Pyrheliometers 81.2.2 Rotating Shadow Band Radiometers 111.2.3 Reference Standards, the World Radiometric Reference (WRR) 131.2.4 Calibration of Pyrheliometers 161.2.5 Accuracy and Uncertainty 171.2.6 Summary of Guide to Uncertainty in Measurement (GUM) Approach 181.2.7 Measurement Data Quality 201.3 Modeling Broadband Direct Solar Radiation 211.3.1 Models for Direct Beam Irradiance 211.3.2 Atmospheric Component Transmittance 221.3.3 Estimating Direct Beam Radiation from Hemispherical Data 251.4 Modeling Spectral Distributions 261.4.1 Bird Simple Spectral Model (SPCTRL2) 271.4.2 Simple Model for Atmospheric Transmission of Sunshine (SMARTS) 281.4.3 Spectral Distributions from Broadband Data 281.5 Resources for Broadband Estimates of CPV Performance 291.5.1 Broadband Direct Beam Radiation Data Resources 291.5.2 Typical Meteorological Year Data for CPV Performance Estimates 311.5.3 CPV Spectral Performance Issues 331.6 Sunshape 331.6.1 The Solar Disk 331.6.2 Circumsolar Radiation 361.6.3 Recent Circumsolar Radiation Research 391.7 Direct Solar Radiation Climates 401.7.1 Measurement Networks and Data 411.7.2 Concentrating Solar Power Site Selection 411.7.3 Concentrating Solar Power Resource Map Examples 431.7.4 Solar Resource Maps and Data Internet Resources 471.8 Consensus Standards for Direct Solar Radiation Applications 481.8.1 World Radiometric Reference 481.8.2 Solar Radiometric Instrumentation Calibration 481.8.3 Spectral Calibration Standards 491.8.4 Standard and Reference Spectral Distributions 49Glossary 50List of Acronyms 50List of Symbols 51References 532 Concentrator Multijunction Solar Cells 59Ignacio Rey-Stolle, Jerry M. Olson, and Carlos Algora2.1 Introduction 592.2 Fundamentals 602.2.1 Fundamentals of Photovoltaic Cells 602.2.2 Fundamentals of Multijunction Solar Cells 632.3 Multijunction Solar Cell Structures 672.3.1 Historical Development of Multijunction PV Converters 682.3.2 Designing Multijunction Solar Cell Structures 732.4 Multijunction Solar Cell Modeling 792.4.1 Numerical Modeling of Multijunction Solar Cell Structures 792.4.2 Analytical Modeling of Multijunction Solar Cells 812.4.3 Further Steps: Distributed Circuit-based Modeling 982.5 Concentrator Requirements 1032.5.1 High Efficiency 1032.5.2 Series Resistance. Grid Designs 1072.5.3 Tunnel Junctions 1102.5.4 Distributed Effects 1132.5.5 Atmospheric Spectral Variations and Impact on Energy Yield 1162.5.6 Temperature Effects 1182.6 Description of Different Cell Approaches 1182.6.1 Lattice-matched GaInP/GaAs/Ge 1182.6.2 Metamorphic GaInP/GaInAs/Ge 1192.6.3 Inverted Metamorphic GaInP/GaAs/GaInAs 1202.6.4 Double Sided Epi 1222.6.5 Lattice Matched GaInP/GaAs/GaInNAs 1222.6.6 Quantum Dot and Quantum Well Multijunction Solar Cells 1232.6.7 More Junctions (4, 5, 6) 1232.6.8 Stacked Multijunction Cells 1242.6.9 III-Vs on Silicon 1242.6.10 Epitaxial Liftoff 126Acknowledgements 127Glossary 127List of Acronyms 127List of Symbols 127References 1293 Emerging High Efficiency Concepts for Concentrator Solar Cells 137Ignacio Tobías and Antonio Luque3.1 Introduction 1373.2 Thermodynamic Efficiency Limits 1383.2.1 Disequilibria and Energy Conversion in Solar Cells 1403.2.2 Thermodynamic Efficiencies 1423.3 Detailed Balance Modeling of Solar Cells 1433.3.1 Shockley–Queisser Model of a Solar Cell 1443.3.2 The System with Infinite Monochromatic Solar Cells 1463.4 Solar Cell Concepts Exceeding the Single Junction Shockley–Queisser Limit 1483.4.1 Multijunction Solar Cells 1483.4.2 Hot Carrier Solar Cells 1493.4.3 Carrier Multiplication or Multi-Exciton Generation Solar Cells 1523.4.4 Intermediate Band Solar Cells 1553.5 Other Concepts 1593.5.1 Light Management for High Efficiency Photovoltaics 1603.5.2 Spectrum Conversion 1613.6 Nanostructures in Solar Cells 1623.6.1 Electron States in Nanostructures 1623.6.2 Light Absorption by Nanostructures 1733.6.3 Relaxation, Capture and Recombination in Nanostructures 1763.6.4 Nanostructures for Multijunction Solar Cells 1773.6.5 Fabrication Techniques 178Glossary 179List of Acronyms 179References 1794 CPV Optics 187Rubén Mohedano and Ralf Leutz4.1 Introduction 1874.2 Light, Optics and Concentration 1884.2.1 Light and Optics 1894.2.2 Optics for Concentration Photovoltaics 1904.3 Optical Background 1924.3.1 Basic Concepts in Geometrical Optics 1924.3.2 Basic Concepts in Nonimaging Optics 1964.4 Design of the Optical Train: Calculation of Surfaces 2024.4.1 Types of Concentrators as a Function of Concentration Level 2034.4.2 Design Examples 2044.4.3 Secondary Optical Elements: Design Details 2104.5 Performance Analysis and Optimization of the Optical Train 2134.5.1 Efficiency. Sources of Losses 2154.5.2 Ray Trace Modeling 2204.6 Optics Manufacturing 2244.6.1 Optical Materials for CPV 2244.6.2 Tolerance Budget 2264.6.3 Manufacturing of Primary Optical Elements 2274.6.4 Manufacturing of Secondary Optic Elements 2314.7 Impact of CPV Optics in a Nutshell 232Glossary 233List of Acronyms 233List of Symbols 234References 235Annex 4-I: Étendue Calculation 239Annex 4-II: 2D Treatment of Rotational and Linear 3D Optical Systems 241Annex 4-III: Design of the XR Concentrator 2425 Temperature Effects on CPV Solar Cells, Optics and Modules 245Iván García, Marta Victoria, and Ignacio Antón5.1 Introduction 2455.2 Effects of Temperature on CPV Solar Cells 2465.2.1 Dependence of the Bandgap on Temperature 2465.2.2 Dependence of the Solar Cell Parameters on Temperature 2485.2.3 Influence of Concentration on the Sensitivity to Temperature 2605.2.4 Experimental Measurements on Real Solar Cells 2615.2.5 Summary of Temperature Effects in CPV Multijunction Solar Cells 2645.3 Temperature Effects and Thermal Management in CPV Optics and Modules 2665.3.1 Temperature Effects on CPV Optics and Modules 2665.3.2 Thermal Coefficients of CPV Modules 2705.3.3 Heat Extraction Strategies 274Glossary 286List of Acronyms 286List of Symbols 286References 2876 CPV Tracking and Trackers 293Ignacio Luque-Heredia, Pedro Magalhães, and Matthew Muller6.1 Introduction 2936.2 Requirements and Specifications 2946.3 Basic Taxonomy of CPV Trackers 2976.4 Design of CPV Trackers – Structural Considerations 3006.5 Sun Tracking Control 3076.5.1 Background 3076.5.2 The Autocalibrated Sun Tracking Control Unit 3116.6 Sun Tracking Accuracy 3156.6.1 The Tracking Accuracy Sensor 3156.6.2 The Monitoring System 3166.6.3 Accuracy Assessment: Example of the Autocalibrated Tracking Strategy 3186.7 Designing for Optimal Manufacturing and Field Works 3226.7.1 Manufacturing Considerations 3226.7.2 Field Works Considerations 3246.8 Description and Performance of Current Tracker Approaches 3276.8.1 Parabolic Trough 3276.8.2 Single-Pole Az.-El. Trackers 3286.8.3 Tilt-Roll Trackers 3306.8.4 Carrousel Trackers 3316.8.5 Variations to Main Architectures in the Field 3326.9 International Standards for Solar Trackers 334References 3377 CPV Modules 339Stephen Askins and Gabriel Sala Pano7.1 Introduction 3397.2 What is a CPV Module? 3397.3 Definition, Functions, and Structure of a CPV Module 3417.3.1 Functions of a CPV Module 3427.3.2 General Terms and Definitions 3437.3.3 Structure of a CPV Module 3437.4 Design Process and Prototyping Stages 3497.5 Concentration Ratio and Cell Size 3537.5.1 Concentration Ratio 3537.5.2 Cell Size Selection 3537.5.3 Module Size and Length 3567.5.4 Market Survey 3577.6 Opto-Mechanics of CPV Modules 3597.6.1 Acceptance Angle 3597.6.2 Acceptance Angle Budget 3617.6.3 External Tolerances 3627.6.4 Internal Tolerances 3637.7 Electrical Design 3727.7.1 Module Voltages and Dielectric Strength 3727.7.2 Series Connections and Bypass Diodes 3737.7.3 Parallel Connections and Blocking Diodes 3747.8 Thermal Design 3757.8.1 Target Cell Temperature 3767.8.2 Simplified Thermal Model 3777.9 Venting Considerations 3897.10 Manufacturing Processes for CPV Modules 3907.10.1 Chassis and Backplane Fabrication 3907.10.2 Heat Sink Fabrication 3957.10.3 Module Assembly 3987.11 Standards Applicable to CPV Modules 399Glossary 401References 403Annex 7-I: Abengoa’s CPV Modules and Systems 406José A. Pérez, Sebastián Caparrós, Justo Albarrán, and Antonio de DiosAnnex 7-II: CPV Modules and Systems from Daido Steel 413Kenji ArakiAnnex 7-III: Soitec CPV Modules and Systems 419Francisca Rubio, Sven T. Wanka, and Andreas GombertAnnex 7-IV: Suncore Photovoltaics’ CPV Modules 426James Foresi8 CPV Power Plants 433María Martínez, Daniel Sánchez, Francisca Rubio, Eduardo F. Fernández, Florencia Almonacid, Norman Abela, Tobias Zech, and Tobias Gerstmaier8.1 Introduction 4338.2 Construction of CPV Plants 4348.2.1 Preliminary Works 4348.2.2 Basic Engineering Study 4368.2.3 Detailed Engineering 4378.2.4 Construction Phase 4408.3 CPV Inverters: Configurations and Sizing 4458.3.1 Types of Configurations 4468.3.2 Sizing of the Inverter 4488.4 Optimized Distribution of Trackers 4508.4.1 State of the Art 4518.4.2 Procedure for Optimizing the Distribution of Trackers 4528.5 Considerations of Environmental Impact and Dual Use of the Land 4568.6 CPV Plant Monitoring and Production Data Analysis 4588.6.1 Monitoring System: Registering the Operating Parameters 4598.6.2 Monitoring System: Controlling a CPV Plant 4608.6.3 Analysis of Production Data 4618.7 Operation and Maintenance 4648.7.1 Operation 4658.7.2 Maintenance 4678.8 Power Rating of a CPV Plant 4708.8.1 ISFOC Approach 4708.8.2 International ASTM Standards 4718.8.3 International IEC Standards 4728.9 Modeling the Energy Production of CPV Power Plants 4778.9.1 Basic Models 4778.9.2 Input Data and Quality Checks 4788.9.3 Loss Mechanisms 479Glossary 484List of Acronyms 484List of Symbols 485References 486Annex 8-I: Software Tools for CPV Plant Design and Analysis 491Annex 8-II: CPV Power Plants at ISFOC 501María Martínez, Daniel Sánchez, Óscar de la Rubia, and Francisca RubioAnnex 8-III: Soitec Power Plants 513Andreas Gombert, Norman Abela, Tobias Gerstmeier, Shelley Bambrook, and Francisca Rubio9 Reliability 521Carlos Algora, Pilar Espinet-Gonzalez, Manuel Vázquez, Nick Bosco, David Miller, Sarah Kurtz, Francisca Rubio, and Robert McConnell9.1 Introduction 5219.2 Fundamentals of Reliability 5219.2.1 Reliability Functions 5229.2.2 Statistical Distribution Functions 5249.2.3 Accelerated Life Tests 5299.2.4 Reliability Versus Qualification 5329.3 Reliability of Solar Cells 5339.3.1 Issues in Accelerated Aging Tests in CPV Solar Cells 5339.3.2 Types of Failure 5389.3.3 Failures in Real Time Operation 5399.3.4 Accelerated Life Tests 5399.3.5 Reliability of Similar Devices 5469.3.6 Links Among Degradation Studies, Reliability and Qualification Standards 5489.4 Reliability of Modules 5499.4.1 Introduction 5499.4.2 Die-attach 5499.4.3 CPV Encapsulation 5529.4.4 CPV Optics 5559.4.5 Other CPV Module Reliability Issues 5629.5 Reliability of Systems and Plants 5629.5.1 Performance Degradation in Power Plants 5639.5.2 Failures of Components 5689.5.3 Qualification Tests on Power Plants Components 5729.5.4 Aging Tests 5759.6 Standards Development for CPV 5779.6.1 Standards as the Mark of a Mature Industry 5779.6.2 History of CPV Standards Development 577Acknowledgement 582References 58210 CPV Multijunction Solar Cell Characterization 589Carl R. Osterwald and Gerald Siefer10.1 Introduction 58910.2 Basic Concepts About Multijunction Solar Cells for Characterization Purposes 59010.2.1 Review of Multijunction Solar Cell Theory 59010.2.2 Definition of CPV Cell Efficiency 59210.2.3 Current-Voltage as a Function of Concentration 59310.3 Spectral Matching and Adjustment 59410.3.1 Isotype Method 59410.3.2 Reference Cell Method 59410.3.3 Rij Method and Linear Equation System Method 59510.3.4 Effects of Subcell Mismatching 59710.4 Flash Solar Simulators: Description and Limitations 60010.4.1 Sources and Optics 60010.4.2 Adjusting Total Intensity 60010.4.3 Irradiance Versus Time 60010.4.4 Spectral Irradiance Adjustment 60110.4.5 Spectral Irradiance Measurement 60210.5 Concentrator Solar Cell Characterization 60310.5.1 Overview 60310.5.2 Area Measurement 60310.5.3 External Quantum Efficiency 60410.5.4 One-Sun Light I-V and One-Sun Short Circuit Current Calibration 60710.5.5 Concentration I-V 60810.5.6 Uncertainty Analysis 60810.5.7 Open Challenges 610Acknowledgments 611Glossary 611List of Acronyms 611List of Symbols 611References 61211 Characterization of Optics for Concentrator Photovoltaics 615Maikel Hernández11.1 Introduction 61511.2 Geometrical Characterization 61611.2.1 Faceted Optics 61711.2.2 Non-faceted Optics 62011.3 Optical Characterization 62411.3.1 Measurement of the Optical Efficiency 62411.3.2 POE Scattering Basic Measurements 62811.3.3 Acceptance Angle Measurement 62911.3.4 Spectral Irradiance Distribution Measurement at the Solar Cell Plane 63311.3.5 Angular Power Distribution at the Solar Cell Plane 63411.3.6 In-line Characterization of Optics in Production 634Glossary 636List of Acronyms 636List of Symbols 636References 63712 Characterization of CPV Modules and Receivers 639César Domínguez, Rebeca Herrero, and Ignacio Antón12.1 Introduction 63912.2 Figures of Merit of PV Concentrators 64012.2.1 Reporting CPV Module Performance 64012.2.2 Performance Indicators for Concentrator Optics 64212.3 Instruments and Methods for CPV Characterization 64312.3.1 Indoors versus Outdoors 64312.3.2 Operating Conditions Relevant to CPV 64412.3.3 Tracker Requirements 65012.3.4 Alignment Procedures 65112.3.5 Rating CPV Module Performance 65212.3.6 Spectral Characterization of CPV Modules and Receivers 65612.3.7 Angular Transmission Curve 66012.3.8 Uncertainties of Instruments and Methods for CPV Characterization 66212.4 Indoor Measurements of CPV Modules 66312.4.1 Solar Simulators for CPV Modules 66312.4.2 Reference Sensor 66812.4.3 Caveats on Indoor Measurements 67212.4.4 Angular Transmission Curve: Direct and Inverse Methods 67412.4.5 Uncertainties in the Indoor Measurement of I-V Curves 678Glossary 678List of Acronyms 678List of Symbols 678References 67913 Life Cycle Analysis of CPV Systems 685Vasilis Fthenakis13.1 Introduction 68513.2 Case Study Description 68613.3 Methodology 68713.4 Life-Cycle Inventory Analysis 68813.4.1 Production of Materials and Associated Emissions 68813.4.2 Solar Cell Manufacturing 69013.4.3 Primary Energy Demand 69213.4.4 End-of-Life Processing 69313.5 System Performance Data and Estimates 69413.6 Energy Payback Time 69513.7 Greenhouse and Toxic Gas Emissions 69613.7.1 Emissions in the Life-Cycle of Amonix 7700 69613.7.2 Reduction of Emissions from PV Replacing Electricity from the Grid 69713.8 Land and Water Use in CPV Systems 69913.9 Discussion and Comparison with Other CPV and PV Systems 70013.9.1 Comparison with Other CPV Systems 70013.9.2 Comparison with Other PV Systems 701Glossary 702List of Acronyms 702List of Symbols 702References 703Annex 13-I: Energy Flow Diagrams for Amonix 7700 System Components 70514 Cost Analysis 711Carlos Algora, Diego L. Talavera, and Gustavo Nofuentes14.1 Introduction 71114.2 Basic Concepts of Cost and Profitability Analysis 71114.2.1 Elements of the Investment 71214.2.2 Present and Future Worth of Sums. The Impact of Inflation 71214.2.3 The Discount Rate 71314.2.4 Effect of Inflation 71314.2.5 Impact of Taxation 71414.2.6 Financing 71414.3 Review of Profitability Analysis 71514.3.1 The Life Cycle Cost of a CPV System 71514.3.2 The Present Worth of the Cash Inflows Generated by a CPV System 71714.3.3 Assessment of the Profitability of a CPV System 71814.3.4 Sensitivity Analysis on the Profitability of CPV Systems 72014.4 The Cost of CPV 72814.4.1 The Cost of CPV Systems 72814.4.2 Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE) of CPV 73514.4.3 Towards the CPV Grid Parity 746Glossary 754References 756Index 759