Ground and Surface Water Hydrology

Larry W. Mays has been a Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Arizona State University since August 1989. He served as Chair of the Department from August 1989 until July 1996. Prior to that he was Director of the Center for Research in Water Resources and holder of an Engineering Foundation Endowed Professorship at The University of Texas at Austin, where he was on the faculty since 1976. Prior to that, he was a graduate research assistant and then a Visiting Research Assistant Professor at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, where he received the Ph.D. in January 1976. He received the B.S. (1970) and M.S. (1971) degrees in civil engineering from the University of Missouri at Rolla, after which he served in the U.S. Army, (1970-1973) stationed at the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory in California.

• About the Author v Preface viiChapter 1 Hydrology, Climate Change, and Sustainability 11.1 Introduction to Hydrologic Processes 11.1.1 What is Hydrology? 11.1.2 Why Study Hydrology? 11.1.3 The Hydrologic Cycle 31.1.4 Hydrologic Systems 41.1.5 Surface Water in the Hydrologic Cycle 51.1.6 Groundwater in the Hydrologic Cycle 51.1.7 Control Volume Approach for Hydrologic Processes 71.2 Climate Change Effects and the Hydrologic Cycle 81.2.1 The Climate System 81.2.2 What is Climate Change? 101.2.3 Climate Change Prediction 111.2.4 Hydrologic Effects of Climate Change 121.3 Anthropogenic Effects on the Hydrologic Cycle 161.3.1 Urbanization 161.3.2 Land and Water Management Effects on the Hydrologic Cycle 171.4 Water Resources Sustainability 181.5 Hydrologic Budgets 191.6 Hydrologic Data and Publication Sources 211.7 U.S. Geological Survey Publications 22Problems 25References 25Chapter 2 Occurrence of Groundwater 272.1 Origin of Groundwater 272.2 Rock Properties Affecting Groundwater 272.2.1 Aquifers 272.2.2 Porosity 282.2.3 Soil Classification 312.2.4 Porosity and Representative Elementary Volume 332.2.5 Specific Surface 332.3 Vertical Distribution of Groundwater 362.4 Zone of Aeration 372.4.1 Soil Water Zone 372.4.2 Intermediate Vadose Zone 382.4.3 Capillary Zone 382.4.4 Measurement of Water Content 402.4.5 Available Water 402.5 Zone of Saturation 412.5.1 Specific Retention 412.5.2 Specific Yield 412.6 Geologic Formations as Aquifers 422.6.1 Alluvial Deposits 432.6.2 Limestone 432.6.3 Volcanic Rock 442.6.4 Sandstone 462.6.5 Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks 462.6.6 Clay 462.7 Types of Aquifers 462.7.1 Unconfined Aquifer 462.7.2 Confined Aquifers 462.7.3 Leaky Aquifer 482.7.4 Idealized Aquifer 482.8 Storage Coefficient 482.9 Groundwater Basins/Regional Groundwater Flow Systems 502.9.1 High Plains Aquifer 522.9.2 Gulf Coastal Plain Aquifer System 542.10 Springs 542.10.1 What Are Springs? 542.10.2 Edwards Aquifer—Discharge of Springs 612.11 Groundwater in the United States 63Problems 70References 71Chapter 3 Groundwater Movement 753.1 Darcy’s Law 753.1.1 Experimental Verification 753.1.2 Darcy Velocity 783.1.3 Validity of Darcy’s Law 783.2 Permeability 793.2.1 Intrinsic Permeability 793.2.2 Hydraulic Conductivity 803.2.3 Transmissivity 803.2.4 Hydraulic Conductivity of Geologic Materials 813.3 Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity 823.3.1 Formulas 823.3.2 Laboratory Methods 833.3.3 Tracer Tests 853.3.4 Auger Hole Tests 873.3.5 Pumping Tests of Wells 883.4 Anisotropic Aquifers 893.5 Groundwater Flow Rates 913.6 General Flow Equations 933.7 Unsaturated Flow 953.7.1 Flow Through Unsaturated Soils 963.7.2 Unsaturated Hydraulic Conductivity 993.7.3 Vertical and Horizontal Flows 103Problems 104References 105Chapter 4 Groundwater and Well Hydraulics 1094.1 Steady Unidirectional Flow 1094.1.1 Confined Aquifer 1094.1.2 Unconfined Aquifer 1104.1.3 Base Flow to a Stream 1124.2 Steady Radial Flow to a Well 1154.2.1 Confined Aquifer 1154.2.2 Unconfined Aquifer 1204.2.3 Unconfined Aquifer with Uniform Recharge 1224.3 Well in a Uniform Flow 1244.4 Unsteady Radial Flow in a Confined Aquifer 1264.4.1 Nonequilibrium Well Pumping Equation 1264.4.2 Theis Method of Solution 1274.4.3 Cooper–Jacob Method of Solution 1294.4.4 Chow Method of Solution 1324.4.5 Recovery Test 1324.5 Unsteady Radial Flow in an Unconfined Aquifer 1354.6 Unsteady Radial Flow in a Leaky Aquifer 1404.7 Well Flow Near Aquifer Boundaries 1434.7.1 Well Flow Near a Stream 1434.7.2 Well Flow Near an Impermeable Boundary 1484.7.3 Well Flow Near Other Boundaries 1514.7.4 Location of Aquifer Boundary 1534.8 Multiple Well Systems 1544.9 Partially Penetrating Wells 1584.10 Well Flow for Special Conditions 1604.11 Slug Tests 1614.11.1 Definition 1614.11.2 Design Guidelines 1614.11.3 Performance of Slug Tests 1624.11.4 Methods for Analyzing Slug-Test Data 1644.12 Slug Tests for Confined Formations 1664.12.1 Cooper, Bredehoeft, and Papadopulos Method 1664.12.2 Hvorslev Method 1704.13 Slug Tests for Unconfined Formations 1724.13.1 Bouwer and Rice Method 1734.13.2 Dagan Method 179Problems 182References 189Chapter 5 Artificial Recharge, Stormwater Infiltration, and Saltwater Intrusion Prevention 1935.1 Artificial Recharge 1935.1.1 Recharge Systems 1935.1.2 Recharge Mounds 1955.2 Stormwater Infiltration Basin Mound Development 2035.2.1 Potential Flow Model for a Trench 2045.2.2 Potential Flow Model for Circular Basin 2055.2.3 Mound Growth 2085.2.4 Mound Recession 2095.3 Saline Water Intrusion in Aquifers 2105.3.1 Occurrence of Saline Water Intrusion 2105.3.2 Ghyben–Herzberg Relation Between Freshwater and Saline Water 2115.3.3 Shape of the Freshwater–Saltwater Interface 2135.3.4 Structure of the Freshwater–Saltwater Interface 2165.3.5 Effect of Wells on Seawater Intrusion 2195.3.6 Upconing of Saline Water 2215.3.7 Control of Saline Water Intrusion 225Problems 227References 228Chapter 6 Groundwater Flow Modeling 2316.1 Introduction 2316.1.1 Why Develop Groundwater Models? 2316.1.2 Types of Groundwater Models 2326.1.3 Steps in the Development of a Groundwater Model 2326.2 Three-Dimensional Groundwater Flow Model 2336.2.1 Derivation of Finite Difference Equations 2336.2.2 Simulation of Boundaries 2396.2.3 Vertical Discretization 2396.2.4 Hydraulic Conductance Equations 2406.3 MODFLOW-2005 Description 2436.3.1 Model Introduction 2436.3.2 Space and Time Discretization 2456.3.3 External Sources and Stresses 2466.3.4 Hydraulic Conductance—Layer-Property Flow (LPF) Package 2486.3.5 Solver Packages 2516.3.6 Telescopic Mesh Refinement 2526.4 Case Study: Using MODFLOW: Lake Five-O, Florida 2566.4.1 Finite Difference Grid and Boundary Conditions 2566.4.2 Model Calibration and Sensitivity Analysis 2566.4.3 Model Results 2606.5 Example Applications and Input of MODFLOW 261Problems 270References 271Chapter 7 Hydrologic Processes 2737.1 Introduction to Surface Water Hydrology 2737.1.1 What is Surface Water Hydrology? 2737.1.2 The Hydrologic Cycle 2737.1.3 Hydrologic Systems 2737.1.4 Atmospheric and Ocean Circulation 2787.1.5 Hydrologic Budget 2807.2 Precipitation (Rainfall) 2817.2.1 Precipitation Formation and Types 2817.2.2 Rainfall Variability 2827.2.3 Disposal of Rainfall on a Watershed 2837.2.4 Design Storms 2867.2.5 Estimated Limiting Storms 3017.3 Evaporation 3047.3.1 Energy Balance Method 3047.3.2 Aerodynamic Method 3077.3.3 Combined Method 3097.4 Infiltration 3107.4.1 Unsaturated Flow 3107.4.2 Green–Ampt Method 3137.4.3 Other Infiltration Methods 319Problems 321References 324Chapter 8 Surface Runoff 3278.1 Drainage Basins and Storm Hydrographs 3278.1.1 Drainage Basins and Runoff 3278.2 Hydrologic Losses, Rainfall Excess, and Hydrograph Components 3318.2.1 Hydrograph Components 3338.2.2 F-Index Method 3338.2.3 Rainfall-Runoff Analysis 3358.3 Rainfall-Runoff Analysis Using Unit Hydrograph Approach 3358.4 Synthetic Unit Hydrographs 3388.4.1 Snyder’s Synthetic Unit Hydrograph 3388.4.2 Clark Unit Hydrograph 3398.5 S-Hydrographs 3438.6 NRCS (SCS) Rainfall-Runoff Relation 3458.7 Curve Number Estimation and Abstractions 3478.7.1 Antecedent Moisture Conditions 3478.7.2 Soil Group Classification 3488.7.3 Curve Numbers 3518.8 NRCS (SCS) Unit Hydrograph Procedure 3548.8.1 Time of Concentration 3558.8.2 Time to Peak 3578.8.3 Peak Discharge 3578.9 Kinematic Wave Overland Flow Runoff Model 3588.10 Computer Models for Rainfall-Runoff Analysis 363Problems 365References 372Chapter 9 Reservoir and Streamflow Routing 3759.1 Routing 3759.2 Hydrologic Reservoir Routing 3769.3 Hydrologic River Routing 3809.4 Hydraulic (Distributed) Routing 3849.4.1 Unsteady Flow Equations: Continuity Equation 3859.4.2 Momentum Equation 3879.5 Kinematic Wave Model for Channels 3909.5.1 Kinematic Wave Equations 3909.5.2 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Kinematic Wave Model for Overland Flow and Channel Routing 3929.5.3 KINEROS2 Channel Flow Routing Model 3939.5.4 Kinematic Wave Celerity 3949.6 Muskingum–Cunge Model 3959.7 Implicit Dynamic Wave Model 3969.8 Distributed Routing in U.S. Army Corps of Engineers HEC-RAS 398Problems 401References 406Chapter 10 Probability, Risk, and Uncertainty Analysis for Hydrologic and Hydraulic Design 40710.1 Probability Concepts 40710.2 Commonly Used Probability Distributions 41010.2.1 Normal Distribution 41010.2.2 Log-Normal Distribution 41010.2.3 Gumbel (Extreme Value Type I) Distribution 41310.3 Hydrologic Design for Water Excess Management 41410.3.1 Hydrologic Design Scale 41410.3.2 Hydrologic Design Level (Return Period) 41610.3.3 Hydrologic Risk 41610.3.4 Hydrologic Data Series 41710.4 Hydrologic Frequency Analysis 41910.4.1 Frequency Factor Equation 41910.4.2 Application of Log-Pearson III Distribution 42010.4.3 Extreme Value Distribution 42510.5 U.S. Water Resources Council Guidelines for Flood Flow Frequency Analysis 42510.5.1 Procedure 42610.5.2 Testing for Outliers 42710.6 Analysis of Uncertainties 43010.7 Risk Analysis: Composite Hydrologic and Hydraulic Risk 43310.7.1 Reliability Computation by Direct Integration 43410.7.2 Reliability Computation Using Safety Margin/Safety Factor 43510.8 Computer Models for Flood-Flow Frequency Analysis 437Problems 438References 441Chapter 11 Hydrologic Design and Floodplain Analysis 44311.1 Hydrologic Design for Stormwater Management: Storm Sewers Design 44311.1.1 Rational Method Design 44311.1.2 Risk-Based Design of Storm Sewers 45111.2 Hydrologic Design of Stormwater Detention 45311.2.1 Why Detention? Effects of Urbanization 45311.2.2 Sizing Detention 45411.2.3 Detention Basin Routing 45511.2.4 Preliminary Sizing of Detention: Modified Rational Method 45611.2.5 Infiltration Basin Design 46011.3 Floodplain Analysis 46111.3.1 Floodplain Analysis Components 46111.3.2 Floodplain Hydraulics 46411.3.3 Water Surface Profile Computation 46811.4 Flood-Control Alternatives 47211.4.1 Structural Alternatives 47311.4.2 Nonstructural Alternatives 47711.4.3 Flood Damage and Net Benefit Estimation 47811.5 Urban Flood Management: A Matter of Water Resources Sustainability 48011.5.1 Urban Flood Management and Sustainability 48011.5.2 Climate Change, Urbanization, and Integrated Management 48111.5.3 Developing Countries and Flood Management 48211.5.4 Developed Countries and Flood Disasters 48211.6 Water Supply for Crop Water Requirements: Evapotranspiration Calculations 48311.6.1 Combination Equation 48311.6.2 FAO-56 Penman–Monteith Equation 48411.6.3 Meteorological Data and Factors 48511.6.4 Radiation Calculations 48911.6.5 ASCE-EWRI Standardized Penman-Monteith Equation 49311.7 Hydrologic Design for Water Supply 49411.7.1 Surface Water Reservoir Systems 49411.7.2 Storage—Firm Yield Analysis forWater Supply 49511.7.3 Reservoir Simulation 503Problems 505References 508Chapter 12 Hydrologic Measurement 51112.1 Atmosphere-Land Interface 51112.1.1 Wind, Humidity, and Solar Radiation 51212.1.2 Precipitation 51512.1.3 Evaporation 51912.1.4 Weather/Climate Stations 52112.1.5 Infiltration 52212.2 Discharge Measurement 52312.2.1 Weir 52312.2.2 Flumes 52712.3 Streamflow Measurement 52812.3.1 Measuring Stage 52812.3.2 Velocity-Area-Integration Method 53112.3.3 Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler 53312.4 Groundwater Measurement 53412.5 Automated Data Acquisition and Transmission Systems 53612.6 Hydrologic Monitoring Systems 53812.6.1 Urban Stormwater Systems 53812.6.2 Flood Early-Warning Systems 541Problems 541References 542Chapter 13 Hydrology of Specific Climates 54313.1 Hydrology of Arid and Semiarid Climates 54313.1.1 Physical Features 54313.1.2 Hydrologic Processes 54513.1.3 Rainfall Hyetographs for Arabian Gulf States 54813.1.4 Design Rainfall Patterns for Arizona 54913.1.5 Hydrology of Alluvial Fan Flooding 54913.2 Hydrology of Cold Climates 55513.2.1 Snowpack, Snow Water Equivalent, and Snowmelt Runoff 55613.2.2 Snowmelt—Energy Budget Solutions 55813.2.3 Snowmelt—Temperature Index Solutions 56113.2.4 Models for Snowmelt Runoff 56213.3 Hydrology of Humid Tropical Climates 56213.3.1 ENSO: El Ni~no-Southern Oscillation 56313.3.2 Rainfall for Drainage Design 56513.3.3 Rainfall Interception—Vegetation Canopy 56713.4 Introduction to Watershed Hydrology Models 56913.4.1 What are Watershed Models? 57013.4.2 Classification of Watershed Models 57113.4.3 Distributed Model Spatial Configurations 57213.4.4 Discussion of Selected Models 573References 574Appendix A Control Volume Approach for Hydrosystems 577Continuity 580Energy 581Momentum 583Appendix B NWS Precipitation Frequency Documents 585Appendix C U.S. Army Corps of Engineers HEC-HMS 589Watershed and Meteorological Description 589Example Application 591References 597Appendix D U.S. Army Corps of Engineers HEC-RAS 599HEC-RAS Model Features 599Cross-Sections 599Cross-Section Description for Conveyance Calculation 600Cross-Section Interpolation 600Cross-Sections at Junctions 601Bridge Description 601Encroachment Methods Floodplain Analysis 602Reference 606Index