Graphene Field-Effect Transistors

Omar Azzaroni is an Adjunct Professor of Physical Chemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is currently a fellow of the Argentinian National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET) and head of the Soft Matter Laboratory at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Wolfgang Knoll is an Honorary Professor at the Danube Private University in Krems, Austria. Previously, he was Scientific Managing Director of the Austrian Institute of Technology in Vienna, Austria, and before that one of the Directors at the MPI for Polymer Research in Mainz, Germany

• Foreword xvPreface xvii1 2D Electronic Circuits for Sensing Applications 1Diogo Baptista, Ivo Colmiais, Vitor Silva, Pedro Alpuim, and Paulo M. Mendes1.1 Introduction 11.2 Graphene Inductors 31.2.1 Modeling of Graphene Inductors 41.3 Graphene Capacitors 51.3.1 Modeling Graphene Capacitors 81.4 2D Material Transistors 91.4.1 Most Common Topologies for Transistors 101.4.2 Modeling of 2D Materials-Based Transistors 111.5 2D Material Diodes 151.5.1 Most Common Topologies 161.5.2 Modeling of 2D Materials-Based Diodes 171.6 Graphene Devices 181.6.1 Graphene Frequency Multipliers 181.6.2 Graphene Mixers 181.6.3 Graphene Oscillators 191.6.3.1 Ring Oscillators 191.6.3.2 LC Tank Oscillators 191.7 Conclusion 19References 202 Large Graphene Oxide for Sensing Applications 25Jingfeng Huang, J. Amanda Ong, and I.Y. Alfred Tok2.1 Graphene Oxide (GO) 252.2 GO as Biosensors 252.3 Large GO 262.4 Mechanism of Large GO via Modified Hummers Method 272.5 Large GO (Modified Hummers Method) Biosensors 282.6 Mechanism of Large GO via Reduced GO Growth 292.7 Large GO (Reduced GO Growth) Biosensors 342.8 Conclusion 382.9 Further Developments 38References 393 Solution-Gated Reduced Graphene Oxide FETs: Device Fabrication and Biosensors Applications 43Nirton C. S. Vieira, Bianca C. S. Ribeiro, Rodrigo V. Blasques, Bruno C. Janegitz, Fabrício A. dos Santos, and Valtencir Zucolotto3.1 Introduction 433.2 Graphene, Graphene Oxide, and Reduced Graphene Oxide 453.2.1 Chemical Reduction 483.2.2 Thermal Reduction 493.2.3 Electrochemical Reduction 513.3 rGO-Based Solution-Gated FETs 523.3.1 Manufacturing Strategies 533.4 Applications of rGO SG-FETs as Biosensors 573.4.1 rGO Functionalization 593.4.2 Enzymatic Biosensors 603.4.3 Affinity Biosensors 613.4.4 Debye Length Screening and How to Overcome It 633.5 Final Remarks and Challenges 64Acknowledgments 65References 654 Graphene-Based Electronic Biosensors for Disease Diagnostics 71Ahmar Hasnain and Alexey Tarasov4.1 Introduction 714.1.1 A Promise for Diagnostics 714.1.2 Principle of Graphene FET Sensor 724.2 Device Fabrication Process 754.2.1 Graphene Synthesis 754.2.2 Graphene Transfer Over Substrates 764.2.3 Fabrication of GFET 774.2.4 New Developments 784.3 Functionalization and Passivation 784.3.1 Probe Molecules 794.3.2 Immobilization of Probe Molecules 804.3.3 Debye Length 814.3.4 Passivation 824.4 CVD GFETs for Diagnostics 834.4.1 Graphene-Based FET Biosensors for Nucleic Acids 834.4.2 Graphene-Based FET Biosensors for Antibody–Antigen Interactions 854.4.3 Graphene-Based FET Biosensors for Enzymatic Biosensors 874.4.4 Graphene-Based FET Biosensors for Sensing of Small Ions 904.5 Discussion 924.5.1 Summary 924.5.2 Challenges 924.5.3 Future Perspectives 93References 935 Graphene Field-Effect Transistors: Advanced Bioelectronic Devices for Sensing Applications 103Kyung Ho Kim, Hyun Seok Song, Oh Seok Kwon, and Tai Hyun Park5.1 Introduction 1035.1.1 Bioelectronic Nose Using Olfactory Receptor-Conjugated Graphene 1065.1.2 Bioelectronics for Diagnosis Using Bioprobe-Modified Graphene 1125.1.3 Biosensors for Environmental Component Monitoring Using Graphene 1165.2 Conclusion 120Acknowledgments 120References 1206 Thin-Film Transistors Based on Reduced Graphene Oxide for Biosensing 125Kai Bao, Ye Chen, Qiyuan He, and Hua Zhang6.1 Introduction 1256.2 Working Principle of TFT-Based Biosensing 1266.3 TFTs Based on rGO for Biosensing 1286.3.1 Protein Detection 1286.3.2 Metal-Ion Detection 1316.3.3 Nucleic Acid Detection 1346.3.4 Small Biomolecular Biosensor 1356.3.5 Living-Cell Biosensor 1376.3.6 Gas Detection 1386.4 Conclusion 140References 1427 Towards Graphene-FET Health Sensors: Hardware and Implementation Considerations 149Nicholas V. Apollo and Hualin Zhan7.1 Introduction to Health Sensing 1497.2 Graphene-FET in Liquid for Sensing 1517.2.1 Graphene Transistors 1537.2.2 Graphene Hall Structures in Liquid 1567.2.3 Graphene Membrane Transistors 1597.3 Device Implementation Considerations 1607.3.1 Hardware and Instrumentation 1607.3.2 Biostability and Biocompatibility 1627.3.3 Medical Imaging Compatibility 163References 1648 Quadratic Fit Analysis of the Nonlinear Transconductance of Disordered Bilayer Graphene Field-Effect Biosensors Functionalized with Pyrene Derivatives 169Sung Oh Woo, Sakurako Tani, and Yongki Choi8.1 Introduction 1698.2 Fabrication of Graphene-Based Field-Effect Biosensors 1708.3 Fundamental Sensing Parameters of Graphene-Based Field-Effect Biosensors 1738.4 Disordered Bilayer Graphene Field-Effect Biosensors Functionalized with Pyrene Derivatives 1748.5 Quadratic Fit Analysis of the Nonlinear Transconductance of Disordered Bilayer Graphene Field-Effect Biosensors 1778.6 Conclusion 181Acknowledgment 181References 1829 Theoretical and Experimental Characterization of Molecular Self-Assembly on Graphene Films 185Kishan Thodkar, Pierre Cazade, and Damien Thompson9.1 Introduction 1859.2 Experimental Tools to Characterize Molecular Functionalization of Graphene 1869.2.1 Considering the Three Distinct Techniques Available for Functionalizing Graphene Are the Outcomes of the Three Functionalization Techniques Consistent, Similar, Reproducible Across all Three Techniques? 1879.2.2 What Tools and Methods Are Available to Perform Such a Characterization of Molecular Self-Assembly Across the Nano to Macro Scale? 1889.3 Atomistic Insights to Guide Molecular Functionalization of Graphene 196References 20310 The Holy Grail of Surface Chemistry of C VD Graphene: Effect on Sensing of cTNI as Model Analyte 207Adrien Hugo, Teresa Rodrigues, Marie-Helen Polte, Yann R. Leroux, Rabah Boukherroub, Wolfgang Knoll, and Sabine Szunerits10.1 Introduction 20710.2 General Overview of C VD Graphene Production, Substrate Transfer and Characterization 21010.3 Evaluation of Graphene Topographical Quality 21210.4 CVD Graphene for FET-Based Sensing 21410.4.1 Diazonium Chemistry on CVD Graphene 21710.4.2 Pyrene Chemistry on CVD Graphene 22010.5 Conclusion 225References 22611 Sensing Mechanisms in Graphene Field-Effect Transistors Operating in Liquid 231Tilmann J. Neubert and Kannan Balasubramanian 23111.1 Introduction 23111.2 Field-Effect Operation in Liquid Compared to Operation in Air 23211.3 Caveats When Operating FETs in Liquid 23411.4 Graphene FETs in Liquid 23511.5 Measurement Modes 23611.6 Using FETs for Sensing in Liquid – Sensing Mechanisms 23811.7 The Electrochemical Perspective 24111.8 The GLI and pH Sensing 24511.9 Detection of Nucleic Acids 24611.10 Other Examples 24711.11 Concluding Remarks 248References 24812 Surface Modification Strategies to Increase the Sensing Length in Electrolyte-Gated Graphene Field-Effect Transistors 251Juliana Scotto, Wolfgang Knoll, Waldemar A. Marmisollé, and Omar Azzaroni12.1 Introduction 25112.2 Ion-Exclusion and Donnan Potential 25312.3 Surface Modification with Polymer Films 25512.4 Surface Modification with Lipid Layers 25812.5 Surface Modification with Mesoporous Materials 26012.6 Kinetic Cost of Extending the Sensing Length 26212.7 Conclusions 265References 26613 Hybridized Graphene Field-Effect Transistors for Gas Sensing Applications 271Radha Bhardwaj and Arnab Hazra 27113.1 Introduction 27113.2 Graphene 27213.3 Graphene FET 27213.4 Graphene in Gas Sensing 27413.5 Graphene FET for Gas Sensing 27513.6 Hybrid Graphene FET for Gas Sensing 27713.7 Conclusion 281Acknowledgments 281References 28114 Polyelectrolyte-Enzyme Assemblies Integrated into Graphene Field-Effect Transistors for Biosensing Applications 285Esteban Piccinini, Gonzalo E. Fenoy, Wolfgang Knoll, Waldemar A. Marmisollé, and Omar Azzaroni14.1 Introduction 28514.2 Field-Effect Transistors Based on Reduced Graphene Oxide 28614.3 Enzyme-Based GFET Sensors Fabricated via Layer-by-Layer Assembly 28714.3.1 Layer-by-Layer (LbL) Assemblies of Polyethylenimine and Urease onto Reduced Graphene-Oxide-Based Field-Effect Transistors (rGO FETs) for the Detection of Urea 28814.3.2 Ultrasensitive Sensing Through Enzymatic Cascade Reactions on Graphene-Based FETs 29214.4 Conclusions 296References 29715 Graphene Field-Effect Transistor Biosensor for Detection of Heart Failure-Related Biomarker in Whole Blood 301Jiahao Li, Yongmin Lei, Zhi-Yong Zhang, and Guo-Jun Zhang15.1 Introduction 30115.2 Experimental Systems and Procedures 30415.2.1 Fabrication of GFET Sensor 30415.2.2 Decoration of Platinum Nanoparticles 30415.2.3 Surface Functionalization 30515.2.4 Immunodetection in Whole Blood 30515.2.5 Electrical Measurements 30515.3 Sensing Principle of GFET for BNP Detection 30615.4 Device Characterization 30615.5 Sensing Performance 30815.5.1 Stability and Reproducibility 30815.5.2 Selectivity 30915.5.3 Sensitivity 30915.6 Clinical Application Prospects 31115.7 Advantages, Limitations, and Outlook of the FET-Based BNP Assay 311References 31316 Enzymatic Biosensors Based on the Electrochemical Functionalization of Graphene Field-Effect Transistors with Conducting Polymers 317Gonzalo E. Fenoy, Esteban Piccinini, Wolfgang Knoll, Waldemar A. Marmisollé, and Omar Azzaroni16.1 Introduction 31716.2 Functionalization of Graphene Transistors with Poly(3-aminobenzylamine-co-aniline) Nanofilms 31816.3 Construction of Acetylcholine Biosensors Based on GFET Devices Functionalized with Electropolymerized Poly(3-amino-benzylamineco-aniline) Nanofilms 32216.4 Glucose Detection by Graphene Field-Effect Transistors Functionalized with Electropolymerized Poly(3-amino-benzylamine-co-aniline) Nanofilms 32716.5 Conclusions 332References 33317 Graphene Field-Effect Transistors for Sensing Stress and Fatigue Biomarkers 339Biddut K. Sarker, Cheri M. Hampton, and Lawrence F. Drummy17.1 Introduction 33917.2 Molecular Biomarkers 34117.3 Graphene Field-Effect Transistor Based Biosensors 34317.3.1 Graphene 34317.3.2 Structure of Graphene Field-Effect Transistors 34517.3.3 Sensing Mechanism of GFET Biosensors 34617.4 GFET Biosensor Fabrication 34817.4.1 Graphene Production 34817.4.2 Device Fabrication 34917.4.3 Graphene Functionalization 35017.5 GFET-Based Stress and Fatigue Biosensors 35317.6 Flexible, Wearable GFET Biosensors, and Biosensor Systems 35817.7 Current Challenges and Future Perspective 36217.7.1 Debye Length Screening 36217.7.2 Device-to-Device Variability 36617.7.3 Short Lifetime and Reusability Issue 36617.8 Conclusion 367References 36718 Highly Sensitive Pathogen Detection by Graphene Field-Effect Transistor Biosensors Toward Point-of-Care-Testing 373Shota Ushiba, Takao Ono, Yasushi Kanai, Naruto Miyakawa, Shinsuke Tani, Hiroshi Ueda, Masahiko Kimura, and Kazuhiko Matsumoto18.1 Introduction 37318.2 Toward Detection of Pathogens by Mimicking Cell Surfaces 37418.2.1 Introduction 37418.2.2 Fabrication of Sialoglycan-Functionalized GFETs 37518.2.3 Evaluation of Sialoglycan-Functionalized GFETs 37518.3 Signal Enhancement in GFETs 37718.3.1 Sensitivity Enhancement by Increasing Receptor Density 37718.3.1.1 Case of Linkers 37718.3.1.2 Basis for Evaluation of Linker-Based Performance Enhancement 37818.3.1.3 Evaluation of Performance Enhancement by Linkers 37818.3.2 Ultrasensitive Detection of Small Antigens by Open-Sandwich Immunoassay on GFETs 38018.3.2.1 Principle of Open-Sandwich (OS) Immunoassay 38018.3.2.2 Advantages of OS-IAs with GFETs 38018.3.2.3 Antibody Fragments and Device Fabrication 38118.3.2.4 OS-IAs on GFETs 38218.3.2.5 OS-IAs on GFETs in Human Serum 38218.3.3 Real-Time Measurement of Enzyme Reaction in Microdroplets Using GFETs and Its Application to Pathogen Detection 38418.3.3.1 Introduction 38418.3.3.2 Measurement Mechanism and Model Measurement System 38518.4 Practical Issues: Baseline Drift and Inspection Methods 38718.4.1 Drift Suppression and Compensation of GFET Biosensors 38818.4.1.1 Drift Suppression in GFETs by Cation Doping 38818.4.1.2 Drift Compensation by State-Space Modeling 39018.4.2 Deep-Learning-Based Optical Inspection of GFETs 39318.5 Conclusion 398References 39819 High-Performance Detection of Extracellular Vesicles Using Graphene Field-Effect Transistor Biosensor 405Ding Wu, Yi Yu, Zhi-Yong Zhang, and Guo-Jun Zhang19.1 What is Extracellular Vesicles 40519.2 The Clinical Significance of Extracellular Vesicles 40619.3 Introduction to Graphene Field-Effect Transistor Biosensor 40619.4 GFET Biosensor for High-Performance Detection of Extracellular Vesicles 40719.4.1 Detection of the Overall Level of Microvesicles Using GFET Biosensor 40819.4.2 Specific Detection of Hepatocellular Carcinoma-Derived Microvesicles Using Dual-Aptamer Modified GFET Biosensor 40919.4.3 Label-Free Detection of Cancerous Exosomes Using GFET Biosensor 41019.5 Some Prospects for Graphene Field-Effect Transistor Biosensor 411References 412Index 417