Geographic Information Science and Systems

Professor Paul Longley, Department of Geography, University College London, UK.Professor Mike Goodchild, Department of Geography, University of California Santa Barbara, USA.Professor David Maguire, ESRI, Redlands, USA.Professor David Rhind, Vice Chancellor and Principle, City University, London, UK.

• FOREWORD xDEDICATION xiPREFACE xiiLIST OF ACRONYMS xivIntroduction1 Geographic Information: Science, Systems, and Society 11.1 Introduction: What Are GI Science and Systems, and Why Do They Matter? 11.2 Data, Information, Evidence, Knowledge, and Wisdom 91.3 GI Science and Systems 111.4 The Technology of Problem Solving 141.5 The Disciplinary Setting of GI Science and Systems (GISS) 161.6 GI Science and Spatial Thinking 301.7 GI Systems and Science in Society 31Questions for Further Study 32Further Reading 321 Principles2 The Nature of Geographic Data 332.1 Introduction 332.2 The Fundamental Problem 342.3 Spatial Autocorrelation and Scale 372.4 Spatial Sampling 392.5 Sampling and VGI 422.6 Distance Decay 432.7 Measuring Distance Effects as Spatial Autocorrelation 482.8 Taming Geographic Monsters 512.9 Induction and Deduction and How It All Comes Together 53Questions for Further Study 54Further Reading 543 Representing Geography 553.1 Introduction 553.2 Digital Representation 573.3 Representation of What and for Whom? 583.4 The Fundamental Problem 613.5 Discrete Objects and Continuous Fields 623.6 Rasters and Vectors 663.7 The Paper Map 693.8 Generalization 713.9 Conclusion 76Questions for Further Study 76Further Reading 764 Georeferencing 774.1 Introduction 774.2 Place-Names and Points of Interest 804.3 Postal Addresses and Postal Codes 824.4 IP Addresses 844.5 Linear Referencing Systems 844.6 Cadasters and the U.S. Public Land Survey System 854.7 Measuring the Earth: Latitude and Longitude 864.8 Projections and Coordinates 884.9 Measuring Latitude, Longitude, and Elevation: GPS 944.10 Converting Georeferences 954.11 Geotagging and Mashups 964.12 Georegistration 964.13 Summary 98Questions for Further Study 98Further Reading 985 Uncertainty 995.1 Introduction 995.2 U1: Uncertainty in the Conception of Geographic Phenomena 1015.3 U2: Further Uncertainty in the Representation of Geographic Phenomena 1115.4 U3: Further Uncertainty in the Analysis of Geographic Phenomena 1175.5 Consolidation 126Questions for Further Study 127Further Reading 1272 Techniques6 GI System Software 1286.1 Introduction 1286.2 The Evolution of GI System Software 1296.3 Architecture of GI System Software 1316.4 Building GI Software Systems 1366.5 GI Software Vendors 1376.6 Types of GI Systems 1406.7 Conclusion 150Questions for Further Study 151Further Reading 1517 Geographic Data Modeling 1527.1 Introduction 1527.2 GI Data Models 1547.3 Example of a Water-Facility Object Data Model 1687.4 Geographic Data Modeling in Practice 170Questions for Further Study 172Further Reading 1728 Data Collection 1738.1 Introduction 1738.2 Primary Geographic Data Capture 1758.3 Secondary Geographic Data Capture 1818.4 Obtaining Data from External Sources (Data Transfer) 1878.5 Capturing Attribute Data 1908.6 Citizen-Centric Web-Based Data Collection 1908.7 Managing a Data Collection Project 191Questions for Further Study 193Further Reading 1939 Creating and Maintaining Geographic Databases 1949.1 Introduction 1949.2 Database Management Systems 1959.3 Storing Data in DBMS Tables 1989.4 SQL 2019.5 Geographic Database Types and Functions 2029.6 Geographic Database Design 2059.7 Structuring Geographic Information 2069.8 Editing and Data Maintenance 2129.9 Multiuser Editing of Continuous Databases 2139.10 Conclusion 214Questions for Further Study 216Further Reading 21610 The GeoWeb 21710.1 Introduction 21710.2 Distributing the Data 22210.3 The Mobile User 22710.4 Distributing the Software: GI Services 23310.5 Prospects 235Questions for Further Study 236Further Reading 2363 Analysis11 Cartography and Map Production 23711.1 Introduction 23711.2 Maps and Cartography 24111.3 Principles of Map Design 24611.4 Map Series 25711.5 Applications 26111.6 Conclusion 265Questions for Further Study 265Further Reading 26512 Geovisualization 26612.1 Introduction: Uses, Users, Messages, and Media 26612.2 Geovisualization, Spatial Query, and User Interaction 26812.3 Geovisualization and Transformation 27412.4 Participation, Interaction, Augmentation, and Dynamic Representation 28012.5 Consolidation 288Questions for Further Study 289Further Reading 28913 Spatial Data Analysis 29013.1 Introduction: What Is Spatial Analysis? 29013.2 Analysis Based on Location 29513.3 Analysis Based on Distance 30413.4 Conclusion 317Questions for Further Study 318Further Reading 31814 Spatial Analysis and Inference 31914.1 The Purpose of Area-Based Analyses 31914.2 Centrality 32114.3 Analysis of Surfaces 32414.4 Design 32914.5 Hypothesis Testing 33414.6 Conclusion 337Questions for Further Study 338Further Reading 33815 Spatial Modeling with GI Systems 33915.1 Introduction 33915.2 Types of Models 34315.3 Technology for Modeling 35115.4 Multicriteria Methods 35215.5 Accuracy and Validity: Testing the Model 35415.6 Conclusion 356Questions for Further Study 357Further Reading 3574 Policy, Management, and Action16 Managing GI Systems 35816.1 Introduction 35916.2 Managing Risk 35916.3 The Case for the GI System: ROI 36016.4 The Process of Developing a Sustainable GI System 36616.5 Sustaining a GI System—The People and Their Competences 37816.6 Conclusions 380Questions for Further Study 380Further Reading 38017 Information and Decision Making 38117.1 Why We Need Information 38117.2 Information as Infrastructure 38617.3 Different Forms of GI 39117.4 Open Data and Open Government 40417.5 Example of an Information Infrastructure: The Military 40617.6 Conclusions 409Questions for Further Study 410Further Reading 41018 Navigating the Risks 41118.1 Clashes Between Scientists and the Judiciary 41218.2 Business Models for GI-Related Enterprises 41218.3 Legal and Regulatory Constraints 41418.4 Privacy and GI Systems 42118.5 Public Trust, Ethics, and Coping with the Media 42418.6 Partnerships, Up-Scaling Activities, and Risk Mitigation 42618.7 Coping with Spatial Stupidity 43218.8 Conclusions 433Questions for Further Study 434Further Reading 43419 Epilog: GISS in the Service of Humanity 43519.1 GISS, the Active Citizen, and Citizen Scientists 43519.2 Context: Our Differentiated World 43719.3 Context: Our Interdependent World 44019.4 The Process 44119.5 The Grand Challenges 44319.6 Grand Challenges Whose Effects We Can Help to Ameliorate 44519.7 Conclusions 459Questions For Further Study 460Further Reading 460INDEX 461