Amr S. Elnashai Pennsylvania State University, USALuigi Di Sarno University of Sannio, Italy

• Preface xiForeword xiiAcknowledgements xiiiIntroduction xivList of Abbreviations xixList of Symbols xxii1 Earthquake Characteristics 11.1 Causes of Earthquakes 11.1.1 Plate Tectonics Theory 11.1.2 Faulting 71.1.3 Seismic Waves 111.2 Measuring Earthquakes 171.2.1 Intensity 171.2.2 Magnitude 211.2.3 Intensity–Magnitude Relationships 261.3 Source]to]Site Effects 291.3.1 Directional Effects 301.3.2 Site Effects 321.3.3 Dispersion and Incoherence 351.4 Effects of Earthquakes 361.4.1 Damage to Buildings and Lifelines 391.4.2 Effects on the Ground 411.4.2.1 Surface Rupture 431.4.2.2 Settlement and Uplift 431.4.2.3 Liquefaction 441.4.2.4 Landslides 441.4.3 Human and Financial Losses 47References 512 Response of Structures 542.1 General 542.2 Conceptual Framework 552.2.1 Definitions 552.2.2 Strength] versus Ductility]Based Response 562.2.3 Member] versus System]Level Consideration 582.2.4 Nature of Seismic Effects 602.2.5 Fundamental Response Quantities 602.2.6 Social and Economic Limit States 622.3 Structural Response Characteristics 632.3.1 Stiffness 632.3.1.1 Factors Influencing Stiffness 652.3.1.2 Effects on Action and Deformation Distributions 712.3.1.3 Non]structural Damage Control 802.3.2 Strength 822.3.2.1 Factors Influencing Strength 842.3.2.2 Effects on Load Path 902.3.2.3 Structural Damage Control 942.3.3 Ductility 972.3.3.1 Factors Influencing Ductility 1002.3.3.2 Effects on Action Redistribution 1112.3.3.3 Structural Collapse Prevention 1132.3.4 Overstrength 1162.3.5 Damping 1222.3.6 Relationship between Strength, Overstrength and Ductility: Force Reduction Factor ‘Supply’ 128References 1323 Earthquake Input Motion 1363.1 General 1363.2 Earthquake Occurrence and Return Period 1363.3 Ground]Motion Models (Attenuation Relationships) 1403.3.1 Features of Strong]Motion Data for Attenuation Relationships 1433.3.2 Attenuation Relationship for Europe 1443.3.3 Attenuation Relationship for Japan 1453.3.4 Attenuation Relationships for North America 1463.3.4.1 Central and Eastern United States 1463.3.4.2 Western North America 1473.3.5 Worldwide Attenuation Relationships 1483.4 Earthquake Spectra 1493.4.1 Factors Influencing Response Spectra 1493.4.2 Elastic and Inelastic Spectra 1513.4.3 Simplified Spectra 1583.4.3.1 Spectra from Attenuation Relationships 1593.4.3.2 Spectra from Ground]Motion Parameters 1653.4.4 Force Reduction Factors (Demand) 1673.4.4.1 Newmark and Hall (1982) 1683.4.4.2 Krawinkler and Nassar (1992) 1693.4.4.3 Miranda and Bertero (1994) 1693.4.4.4 Vidic et al. (1994) 1703.4.4.5 Borzi and Elnashai (2000) 1713.4.4.6 Comparison between Response Modification Factor Models 1733.4.5 Design Spectra 1743.4.6 Vertical Component of Ground Motion 1763.4.7 Vertical Motion Spectra 1783.5 Earthquake Records 1803.5.1 Natural Records 1803.5.1.1 Regional Differences 1803.5.1.2 Selection Criteria 1823.5.2 Artificial Records 1843.5.3 Records Based on Mathematical Formulations 1853.5.4 Scaling of Earthquake Records 1873.5.4.1 Scaling Based on Peak Ground Parameters 1873.5.4.2 Scaling Based on Spectrum Intensity 1883.6 Duration and Number of Cycles of Earthquake Ground Motions 1943.7 Use of Earthquake Databases 1993.8 Software for Deriving Spectra and Generation of Ground]Motion Records 2003.8.1 Derivation of Earthquake Spectra 2003.8.2 Generation of Ground]Motion Records 202References 2034 Response Evaluation 2114.1 General 2114.2 Conceptual Framework 2114.3 Ground Motion and Load Modelling 2144.4 Seismic Load Combinations 2154.5 Structural Modelling 2184.5.1 Materials 2224.5.1.1 Metals 2224.5.1.2 Reinforced Concrete 2244.5.2 Sections 2274.5.3 Components and Systems for Structural Modelling 2314.5.3.1 Beams and Columns 2334.5.3.2 Connections 2374.5.3.3 Diaphragms 2384.5.3.4 Infills 2404.5.3.5 Frames 2414.5.3.6 Structural Walls 2454.5.4 Masses 2484.6 Methods of Analysis 2504.6.1 Dynamic Analysis 2524.6.1.1 Modal and Spectral Analyses 2544.6.1.2 Response]History Analysis 2604.6.1.3 Incremental Dynamic Analysis 2624.6.2 Static Analysis 2654.6.2.1 Equivalent Static Analysis 2654.6.2.2 Pushover Analysis 2664.6.3 Simplified Code Method 2724.7 Performance Levels and Objectives 2784.8 Output for Assessment 2854.8.1 Actions 2874.8.2 Deformations 287References 2945 Fragility Relationships for Structures 3005.1 General 3005.2 Theory and Applications 3015.3 Empirical Functions 3135.4 Analytical Functions 321References 3356 Seismic Soil–Structure Interaction 3406.1 General 3406.2 Effects of SSI on Structural Response 3426.3 Modelling Methods for the Soil–Foundation System 3446.3.1 Lumped Elastic Springs and Dampers 3446.3.2 Frequency]Dependent Stiffness and Damping 3466.3.3 Inelastic Elements for Near]Field Soil 3496.3.4 Modelling of Pile and Pile Group Foundations 3506.3.5 Lumped Spring–Mass–Damper System 3516.3.6 Time Series Representation of Foundation Reaction 3526.4 Analysis Methods 3546.4.1 Frequency]Domain Analyses 3556.4.2 Direct Approach 3556.4.3 Multistep Approach 3576.5 Application Examples 3596.5.1 Pile–Soil Interaction Analysis 3606.5.1.1 Site Properties 3616.5.1.2 Finite Element Model 3616.5.1.3 Analysis and Results 3626.5.2 Meloland Road Overcrossing – Embankment–Structure Interaction 3636.5.2.1 Bridge and Site Properties 3646.5.2.2 Embankment and Foundation Model 3646.5.2.3 Soil–Structure]Interaction Analysis Configuration 3666.5.2.4 Dynamic Properties of the Embankment–Bridge System 3666.5.2.5 Time]History Analysis Results 3686.5.3 Caruthersville Bridge 368References 372Concluding Remarks 377Appendix A – Structural Configurations and Systems for Effective Earthquake Resistance 379A.1 Structural Configurations 379A.1.1 Plan Regularity 383A.1.2 Elevation Regularity 387A.2 Structural Systems 391A.2.1 Horizontal Systems 391A.2.2 Vertical Systems 393A.2.2.1 Moment]Resisting Frames 395A.2.2.2 Braced Frames 396A.2.2.3 Structural Walls 399A.2.2.4 Hybrid Frames 401A.2.2.5 Tube Systems 403References 407Appendix B – Damage to Structures 409B.1 Structural Deficiencies 409B.1.1 Buildings 409B.1.2 Bridges 411B.2 Examples of Damage to Buildings 411B.2.1 RC Buildings 412B.2.1.1 Beams 412B.2.1.2 Columns 413B.2.1.3 Beam]to]Column Joints 417B.2.1.4 Frames 419B.2.1.5 Walls 427B.2.2 Masonry Buildings 428B.2.2.1 Failure in Load]Bearing Walls 429B.2.2.2 Failure in Non]bearing Walls 431B.2.2.3 Failure of Wall Connections 432B.2.3 Steel and Composite Buildings 432B.2.3.1 Member Failures 433B.2.3.2 Connection Failures 435B.2.3.3 System Failures 439B.3 Examples of Damage to Bridges 440B.3.1 Span Failure 441B.3.2 Abutment Failure 444B.3.3 Pier Failure 445B.3.3.1 Column Flexural Failure 446B.3.3.2 Column Shear Failure 447B.3.3.3 Column Buckling and Fractures 447B.3.4 Joint Failure 450B.3.5 Footing Failure 450B.3.6 Geotechnical Effects 454B.4 Lessons Learnt from Previous Earthquakes 455B.4.1 Requisites of RC Structures 455B.4.2 Requisites of Masonry Structures 456B.4.3 Requisites of Steel and Composite Structures 457References 457Index 459