Fundamentals of Biological Wastewater Treatment

Udo Wiesmann was Professor of Chemical Engineering at the Technical University of Berlin (Germany) from 1971 - 2003. He changed his field of work from of the topic of Fuel Technology (1961-1968) to Reaction Engineering (1968 - 1972) and then to Environmental Engineering (1972-2005). His research centered on Biological Wastewater Treatment. His special interest was in kinetic studies of bacteria growth and substrate removal from wastewater and reaction engineering investigations. He has published some 130 scientific papers and presented lectures in six different fields of environmental engineering. Professor Wiesmann was speaker of the German Cooperative Research Program SFB 196 "Biological Treatment of Industrial Wastewater" during 1991-1996 and served in work groups on environmental technology and committees of technical and scientific journals on several associations. In Su Choi has been a research assistant at the Institute of Chemical Engineering of the Technical University of Berlin (Germany) since 2000. He obtained his B.S. degree in Environmental Engineering from the University of Seoul (Korea) and his Dipl.-Ing. degree from the Technical University of Berlin. He first studied the mass transfer controlled ozonation of highly concentrated azo dyes and was employed in a Korean-German project to investigate the advantages of solid carriers for bacteria in bioreactors for nitrification. In 2005 he completed his Dr.-Ing. degree on the topic of Aerobic Degradation of Surfactant and Nitrification in a Membrane Bioreactor with CO2 and O2 Gas Analysis at the Technical University of Berlin. His research is currently focused on water and wastewater treatment by both chemical and biological means. Eva-Maria Dombrowski is Professor for Biochemical and Chemical Engineering at the Technische Fachhochschule Berlin (TFH, University of Applied Science), Germany. She studied Chemical Engineering at the Technical University of Berlin and obtained her PhD researching the sedimentation of activated sludge. She spent eight years as a staff scientist at the State Environmental Agency in Berlin in the field of treatment of inorganic compounds of exhaust gas and the water emission situation before being named professor for Biochemical and Chemical Engineering in 1996.Professor Dombrowski's research is focused on the biological treatment of wastewater and solid waste. Since 2001 she has been chairman of the Hypatia Program, a post-graduate-program for women at the TFH Berlin.

• Preface xiiiList of Symbols and Abbreviations xvii1 Historical Development of Wastewater Collection and Treatment 11.1 Water Supply and Wastewater Management in Antiquity 11.2 Water Supply and Wastewater Management in the Medieval Age 41.3 First Studies in Microbiology 71.4 Wastewater Management by Direct Discharge into Soil and Bodies of Water – The First Studies 111.5 Mineralization of Organics in Rivers, Soils or by Experiment – A Chemical or Biological Process? 121.6 Early Biological Wastewater Treatment Processes 141.7 The Cholera Epidemics – Were They Caused by Bacteria Living in the Soil or Water? 161.8 Early Experiments with the Activated Sludge Process 161.9 Taking Samples and Measuring Pollutants 181.10 Early Regulations for the Control of Wastewater Discharge 19References 202 Wastewater Characterization and Regulations 252.1 Volumetric Wastewater Production and Daily Changes 252.2 Pollutants 272.2.1 Survey 272.2.2 Dissolved Substances 282.2.2.1 Organic Substances 282.2.2.2 Inorganic Substances 302.2.3 Colloids 322.2.3.1 Oil-In-Water Emulsions 322.2.3.2 Solid-In-Water Colloids 332.2.4 Suspended Solids 342.3 Methods for Measuring Dissolved Organic Substances as Total Parameters 342.3.1 Biochemical Oxygen Demand 342.3.2 Chemical Oxygen Demand 362.3.3 Total and Dissolved Organic Carbon 372.4 Legislation 382.4.1 Preface 382.4.2 German Legislation 382.4.2.1 Legislation Concerning Discharge into Public Sewers 382.4.2.2 Legislation Concerning Discharge into Waters 392.4.3 EU Guidelines 41References 423 Microbial Metabolism 433.1 Some Remarks on the Composition and Morphology of Bacteria (Eubacteria) 433.2 Proteins and Nucleic Acids 453.2.1 Proteins 453.2.1.1 Amino Acids 453.2.1.2 Structure of Proteins 463.2.1.3 Proteins for Special Purposes 473.2.1.4 Enzymes 473.2.2 Nucleic Acids 503.2.2.1 Desoxyribonucleic Acid 503.2.2.2 Ribonucleic Acid 543.2.2.3 DNA Replication 573.2.2.4 Mutations 583.3 Catabolism and Anabolism 593.3.1 ADP and ATP 593.3.2 Transport of Protons 593.3.3 Catabolism of Using Glucose 603.3.3.1 Aerobic Conversion by Prokaryotic Cells 603.3.3.2 Anaerobic Conversion by Prokaryotic Cells 653.3.4 Anabolism 66References 674 Determination of Stoichiometric Equations for Catabolism and Anabolism 694.1 Introduction 694.2 Aerobic Degradation of Organic Substances 704.2.1 Degradation of Hydrocarbons Without Bacterial Decay 704.2.2 Mineralization of 2,4-Dinitrophenol 714.2.3 Degradation of Hydrocarbons with Bacterial Decay 744.3 Measurement of O2 Consumption Rate rO2,S and CO2 Production Rate rCO2,S 76Problems 78References 815 Gas/Liquid Oxygen Transfer and Stripping 835.1 Transport by Diffusion 835.2 Mass Transfer Coefficients 865.2.1 Definition of Specific Mass Transfer Coefficients 865.2.2 Two Film Theory 875.3 Measurement of Specific Overall Mass Transfer Coefficients KL a 905.3.1 Absorption of Oxygen During Aeration 905.3.1.1 Steady State Method 905.3.1.2 Non-steady State Method 915.3.1.3 Dynamic Method in Wastewater Mixed with Activated Sludge 925.3.2 Desorption of Volatile Components During Aeration 935.4 Oxygen Transfer Rate, Energy Consumption and Efficiency in Large-scale Plants 955.4.1 Surface Aeration 955.4.1.1 Oxygen Transfer Rate 955.4.1.2 Power Consumption and Efficiency 965.4.2 Deep Tank Aeration 985.4.2.1 Preliminary Remarks 985.4.2.2 The Simple Plug Flow Model 995.4.2.3 Proposed Model of the American Society of Civil Engineers 1015.4.2.4 Further Models 1035.4.2.5 Oxygen Transfer Rate 1035.4.2.6 Power Consumption and Efficiency 1065.4.2.7 Monitoring of Deep Tanks 1065.5 Dimensional Analysis and Transfer of Models 1085.5.1 Introduction 1085.5.2 Power Consumption of a Stirred, Non-aerated Tank – A Simple Example 1095.5.3 Description of Oxygen Transfer, Power Consumption and Efficiency by Surface Aerators Using Dimensionless Numbers 1125.5.4 Application of Dimensionless Numbers for Surface Aeration 113Problem 115References 1176 Aerobic Wastewater Treatment in Activated Sludge Systems 1196.1 Introduction 1196.2 Kinetic and Reaction Engineering Models With and Without Oxygen Limitation 1196.2.1 Batch Reactors 1196.2.1.1 With High Initial Concentration of Bacteria 1196.2.1.2 With Low Initial Concentration of Bacteria 1226.2.2 Chemostat 1226.2.3 Completely Mixed Activated Sludge Reactor 1256.2.3.1 Preliminary Remarks 1256.2.3.2 Mean Retention Time, Recycle Ratio and Thickening Ratio as Process Parameters 1266.2.3.3 Sludge Age as Parameter 1286.2.4 Plug Flow Reactor 1306.2.5 Completely Mixed Tank Cascades With Sludge Recycle 1326.2.6 Flow Reactor With Axial Dispersion 1346.2.7 Stoichiometric and Kinetic Coefficients 1366.2.8 Comparison of Reactors 1376.3 Retention Time Distribution in Activated Sludge Reactors 1386.3.1 Retention Time Distribution 1386.3.2 Completely Mixed Tank 1406.3.3 Completely Mixed Tank Cascade 1406.3.4 Tube Flow Reactor With Axial Dispersion 1416.3.5 Comparison Between Tank Cascades and Tube Flow Reactors 1426.4 Technical Scale Activated Sludge Systems for Carbon Removal 144Problems 146References 1497 Aerobic Treatment with Biofilm Systems 1517.1 Biofilms 1517.2 Biofilm Reactors for Wastewater Treatment 1527.2.1 Trickling Filters 1527.2.2 Submerged and Aerated Fixed Bed Reactors 1547.2.3 Rotating Disc Reactors 1567.3 Mechanisms for Oxygen Mass Transfer in Biofilm Systems 1587.4 Models for Oxygen Mass Transfer Rates in Biofilm Systems 1597.4.1 Assumptions 1597.4.2 Mass Transfer Gas/Liquid is Rate-limiting 1597.4.3 Mass Transfer Liquid/Solid is Rate-limiting 1607.4.4 Biological Reaction is Rate-limiting 1607.4.5 Diffusion and Reaction Inside the Biofilm 1607.4.6 Influence of Diffusion and Reaction Inside the Biofilm and of Mass Transfer Liquid/Solid 1637.4.7 Influence of Mass Transfer Rates at Gas Bubble and Biofilm Surfaces 164Problems 164References 1668 Anaerobic Degradation of Organics 1698.1 Catabolic Reactions – Cooperation of Different Groups of Bacteria 1698.1.1 Survey 1698.1.2 Anaerobic Bacteria 1698.1.2.1 Acidogenic Bacteria 1698.1.2.2 Acetogenic Bacteria 1718.1.2.3 Methanogenic Bacteria 1718.1.3 Regulation of Acetogenics by Methanogenics 1738.1.4 Sulfate and Nitrate Reduction 1758.2 Kinetics – Models and Coefficients 1768.2.1 Preface 1768.2.2 Hydrolysis and Formation of Lower Fatty Acids by Acidogenic Bacteria 1768.2.3 Transformation of Lower Fatty Acids by Acetogenic Bacteria 1778.2.4 Transformation of Acetate and Hydrogen into Methane 1798.2.5 Conclusions 1808.3 Catabolism and Anabolism 1828.4 High-rate Processes 1848.4.1 Introduction 1848.4.2 Contact Processes 1858.4.3 Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket 1878.4.4 Anaerobic Fixed Bed Reactor 1888.4.5 Anaerobic Rotating Disc Reactor 1908.4.6 Anaerobic Expanded and Fluidized Bed Reactors 191Problem 192References 1939 Biodegradation of Special Organic Compounds 1959.1 Introduction 1959.2 Chlorinated Compounds 1969.2.1 Chlorinated n-Alkanes, Particularly Dichloromethane and 1,2-Dichloroethane 1969.2.1.1 Properties, Use, Environmental Problems and Kinetics 1969.2.1.2 Treatment of Wastewater Containing DCM or DCA 1989.2.2 Chlorobenzene 2009.2.2.1 Properties, Use and Environmental Problems 2009.2.2.2 Principles of Biological Degradation 2009.2.2.3 Treatment of Wastewater Containing Chlorobenzenes 2029.2.3 Chlorophenols 2039.3 Nitroaromatics 2049.3.1 Properties, Use, Environmental Problems and Kinetics 2049.3.2 Treatment of Wastewater Containing 4-NP or 2,4-DNT 2069.4 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Mineral Oils 2069.4.1 Properties, Use and Environmental Problems 2069.4.2 Mineral Oils 2079.4.3 Biodegradation of PAHs 2099.4.3.1 PAHs Dissolved in Water 2099.4.3.2 PAHs Dissolved in n-Dodecane Standard Emulsion 2119.5 Azo Reactive Dyes 2119.5.1 Properties, Use and Environmental Problems 2119.5.2 Production of Azo Dyes in the Chemical Industry – Biodegradability of Naphthalene Sulfonic Acids 2139.5.3 Biodegradation of Azo Dyes 2159.5.3.1 Direct Aerobic Degradation 2159.5.3.2 Anaerobic Reduction of Azo Dyes 2159.5.3.3 Aerobic Degradation of Metabolites 2169.5.4 Treatment of Wastewater Containing the Azo Dye Reactive Black 5 2169.6 Final Remarks 217References 21810 Biological Nutrient Removal 22310.1 Introduction 22310.2 Biological Nitrogen Removal 22710.2.1 The Nitrogen Cycle and the Technical Removal Process 22710.2.2 Nitrification 22810.2.2.1 Nitrifying Bacteria and Stoichiometry 22810.2.2.2 Stoichiometry and Kinetics of Nitrification 23110.2.2.3 Parameters Influencing Nitrification 23510.2.3 Denitrification 23710.2.3.1 Denitrifying Bacteria and Stoichiometry 23710.2.3.2 Stoichiometry and Kinetics of Denitrification 23910.2.3.3 Parameters Influencing Denitrification 24010.2.4 Nitrite Accumulation During Nitrification 24210.2.5 New Microbial Processes for Nitrogen Removal 24310.3 Biological Phosphorus Removal 24410.3.1 Enhanced Biological Phosphorus Removal 24410.3.2 Kinetic Model for Biological Phosphorus Removal 24510.3.2.1 Preliminary Remarks 24510.3.2.2 Anaerobic Zone 24610.3.2.3 Aerobic Zone 24710.3.3 Results of a Batch Experiment 24810.3.4 Parameters Affecting Biological Phosphorus Removal 24910.4 Biological Nutrient Removal Processes 25010.4.1 Preliminary Remarks 25010.4.2 Nitrogen Removal Processes 25010.4.3 Chemical and Biological Phosphorus Removal 25210.4.4 Processes for Nitrogen and Phosphorus Removal 25310.4.4.1 Different Levels of Performance 25310.4.4.2 WWTP Waßmannsdorf 25510.4.4.3 Membrane Bioreactors (MBR) 25710.5 Phosphorus and Nitrogen Recycle 25710.5.1 Recycling of Phosphorus 25710.5.2 Recycling of Nitrogen 258Problems 259References 26211 Modelling of the Activated Sludge Process 26711.1 Why We Need Mathematical Models 26711.2 Models Describing Carbon and Nitrogen Removal 26811.2.1 Carbon Removal 26811.2.2 Carbon Removal and Bacterial Decay 26911.2.3 Carbon Removal and Nitrification Without Bacterial Decay 27011.3 Models for Optimizing the Activated Sludge Process 27111.3.1 Preface 27111.3.2 Modelling the Influence of Aeration on Carbon Removal 27211.3.3 Activated Sludge Model 1 (ASM 1) 27511.3.4 Application of ASM 1 28311.3.5 More Complicated Models and Conclusions 285Problems 286References 28812 Membrane Technology in Biological Wastewater Treatment 29112.1 Introduction 29112.2 Mass Transport Mechanism 29312.2.1 Membrane Characteristics and Definitions 29312.2.2 Mass Transport Through Non-porous Membranes 29612.2.3 Mass Transport Through Porous Membranes 30012.3 Mass Transfer Resistance Mechanisms 30112.3.1 Preface 30112.3.2 Mass Transfer Resistances 30212.3.3 Concentration Polarization Model 30312.3.4 Solution–diffusion Model and Concentration Polarization 30612.3.5 The Pore Model and Concentration Polarization 30812.4 Performance and Module Design 30812.4.1 Membrane Materials 30812.4.2 Design and Configuration of Membrane Modules 30912.4.2.1 Preliminary Remarks 30912.4.2.2 Dead-end Configuration 31312.4.2.3 Submerged Configuration 31412.4.2.4 Cross-flow Configuration 31412.4.3 Membrane Fouling and Cleaning Management 31512.4.3.1 Types of Fouling Processes 31512.4.3.2 Membrane Cleaning Strategies 31612.5 Membrane Bioreactors 31812.5.1 Final Treatment (Behind the Secondary Clarifier) 31812.5.2 Membrane Bioreactors in Aerobic Wastewater Treatment 31912.5.3 Membrane Bioreactors and Nutrient Removal 323Problems 324References 32713 Production Integrated Water Management and Decentralized Effluent Treatment 33113.1 Introduction 33113.2 Production Integrated Water Management in the Chemical Industry 33313.2.1 Sustainable Development and Process Optimization 33313.2.1.1 Primary Points of View 33313.2.1.2 Material Flow Management 33413.2.1.3 Production of Naphthalenedisufonic Acid 33613.2.1.4 Methodology of Process Improvement 33813.2.2 Minimization of Fresh Water Use 33913.2.2.1 Description of the Problem 33913.2.2.2 The Concentration/Mass Flow Rate Diagram and the Graphical Solution 34013.2.3 The Network Design Method 34413.3 Decentralized Effluent Treatment 34613.3.1 Minimization of Treated Wastewater 34613.3.1.1 Description of the Problem 34613.3.1.2 Representation of Treatment Processes in a Concentration/Mass Flow Rate Diagram 34713.3.1.3 The Lowest Wastewater Flow Rate to Treat 34913.3.2 Processes for Decentralized Effluent Treatment 349Problems 350References 354Subject Index 355

"…a straightforward, well-written and technically sound discussion of wastewater treatment." (Journal of Hazardous Materials, July 19, 2007)