Functional Foods, Nutraceuticals, and Degenerative Disease Prevention

Dr Gopinadhan Paliyath is Professor in the Department of Plant Agriculture, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada Dr Marica Bakovic is Professor in the Department of Human Health & Nutritional Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, CanadaDr Kalidas Shetty is Professor in the Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA

• Contributors xv Preface xviiAbout the Editors xix1 Functional Foods, Nutraceuticals, and Disease Prevention: A Window to the Future of Health Promotion 3Gopinadhan Paliyath and Kalidas Shetty1.1 Chronic Degenerative Diseases in Modern Society: Implications on Life Quality, Productivity, Economic Burden 31.1.1 Diet and lifestyle changes: the missing foods 31.1.2 Social and economic burden of chronic degenerative diseases 41.2 Health Regulatory Properties of Foods: “Prevention Is Better Than Cure” 51.2.1 Fruit and vegetable consumption and disease prevention 6References 82 Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals 11Chung-Ja C. Jackson and Gopinadhan Paliyath2.1 Introduction 112.2 Definition of Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals 122.2.1 Effects of functional foods and nutraceuticals on major chronic diseases 162.3 Sources and Biological Effects of Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals in Nature 192.3.1 Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) 202.3.2 Phytoestrogens 212.3.3 Tomatoes 212.3.4 Garlic (Allium sativum) 212.3.5 Cruciferous vegetables 222.3.6 Citrus fruits 222.3.7 Cranberry 232.3.8 Tea 232.3.9 Wine and grapes 242.3.10 Chocolate 242.3.11 Fish 252.3.12 Dairy products 252.3.13 Carbohydrates 262.3.14 Meat 262.3.15 Vitamins 262.3.16 Minerals 272.4 Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals: Health Claims and Benefits 272.4.1 Oats 272.4.2 Psyllium 272.4.3 Soybeans 282.4.4 Phytosterols 292.4.5 Fiber 292.4.6 D-Tagatose 292.5 Qualifi ed Health Claims 292.5.1 Selenium and cancer 292.5.2 Antioxidant vitamins and cancer 302.5.3 Nuts (e.g., walnuts) and heart disease 302.5.4 Omega-3 fatty acids and CHD 302.5.5 Phosphatidylserine/Phosphatidylcholine and cognitive dysfunction and dementia 302.5.6 Folic acid and neural tube birth defects 302.6 Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals: Safety Issues 302.6.1 Echinacea 312.6.2 Ephedra (also called “ma huang, herbal ecstasy, or mahuanggen”) 312.6.3 Feverfew 312.6.4 Garlic 312.6.5 Ginger 322.6.6 Gingko biloba 322.6.7 Ginseng 322.6.8 Kava kava products 322.6.9 St. John’s Wort 322.7 Regulation of Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals 332.8 Public Education and Dietary Guidance 352.9 Concluding Remarks 36References 373 Nutritional Genomics: Fundamental Role of Diet in Chronic Disease Prevention and Control 45Amy J. Tucker, Branden Deschambault, and Marica Bakovic3.1 Introduction 453.2 Nutrigenetics 463.2.1 Gene polymorphisms 463.2.2 Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) 473.2.3 Nonsynonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms (nsSNPs) 473.2.4 Regulatory single nucleotide polymorphisms (rSNPs) 483.2.5 Splice site single nucleotide polymorphisms (ssSNPs) 483.2.6 Trans-Acting rSNPs 483.3 Complexities of chronic disease research in nutrigenetics 493.4 Chronic Disease and Rare SNPs 503.4.1 Copy number variants 503.5 CVD and Nutrigenetics 513.6 Nutrigenetics and Cancer 513.7 Summary of Nutrigenetic Research Potential 513.8 Nutriepigenetics 523.8.1 Role of the epigenome 523.8.2 Cause of epimutations 523.9 Epimutations in Chronic Disease 533.9.1 Epimutations and macronutrients/micronutrients 533.9.2 Epimutations and phytochemicals 543.10 Summary of Epigenetic Research Potential 543.11 Nutrigenomics 543.11.1 Genomic impact of diet 553.11.2 Carbohydrates and gene interactions 553.12.3 Cholesterol and gene interactions 563.11.4 FAs, lipids, and gene interactions 583.11.5 Lipids and APOE 593.11.6 Diet and APOE 603.11.7 Lipids and hepatic lipase (HL) 603.11.8 Diet and LIPC 613.11.9 Interaction between APOE and HL 613.12 Vitamin A and Gene Interactions 613.12.1 Dual roles of vitamin A 623.13 Vitamin E and Nutrigenomics 623.13.1 Vitamin E and atherosclerosis 623.13.2 Vitamin E and cholesterol biosynthesis 633.14 Vitamin D and Gene Interactions 633.14.1 Vitamin D and breast cancer 633.14.2 Vitamin D and FAs 643.15 Phytoestrogens and Gene Interactions 643.15.1 Phytoestrogens and breast cancer 643.15.2 Phytoestrogens and lipid, glucose metabolism 643.16 Phytosterols and Gene Interactions 653.16.1 Phytosterols and cholesterol metabolism 653.16.2 Phytosterols and cancer 653.17 Polyphenols and Gene Interactions 653.17.1 Polyphenols and CVD 653.17.2 Polyphenols and cancer 663.18 Nutrigenomics Summary: Advantages, Limitations, Future 663.19 Conclusions 67References 674 Nutraceuticals and Antioxidant Function 75Denise Young, Rong Tsao, and Yoshinori Mine4.1 Introduction 754.2 Oxidative Stress and ROS 754.2.1 Endogenous sources of ROS 764.2.2 Exogenous sources of ROS 774.3 Antioxidants and Antioxidative Defense Systems 774.3.1 Endogenous antioxidants and antioxidative defenses 774.3.2 Dietary antioxidants 794.4 Phytochemicals 794.4.1 Polyphenols 804.4.2 Amides 854.4.3 Carotenoids 864.4.4 Mechanism of antioxidant action 874.5 Antioxidant Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins 904.6 Mechanism of Action of Antioxidant and Antioxidative Stress Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins 914.6.1 Amino acids 914.6.2 Peptides and proteins 914.7 Production of Antioxidant Peptides 954.8 Recent Advances in Analytical Techniques for Measuring Antioxidant Capacity and Oxidative Damage 964.8.1 Chemical antioxidant capacity assay 964.8.2 Cell-based antioxidant assays 994.9 Health Benefi ts of Nutraceutical Antioxidants 1014.9.1 Evidence of antioxidant efficacy in disease states 1014.9.2 Failure of antioxidants to demonstrate efficacy 1024.10 Conclusion 102References 1035 Composition and Chemistry of Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals: Infl uence on Bioaccessibility and Bioavailability 113Jissy K. Jacob and Gopinadhan Paliyath5.1 Introduction 1135.2 Polyphenols as Antioxidants 1155.2.1 Free radicals and endogenous antioxidant defense mechanisms 1155.2.2 Diet and exogenous antioxidants (flavonoids) 1155.2.3 Antioxidant properties of flavonoids 1175.3 Antioxidant Activity of Anthocyanins 1185.4 Anthocyanin Biosynthesis and Localization 1195.5 Bioaccessibility and Bioavailability of Polyphenols 1215.6 Microstructural Characteristics of Grape Juice 1225.7 Physicochemical Properties of the Dialyzed Juice Fraction 1235.8 Ultrastructural Analysis of Juice Fractions 1245.9 Composition of Juice Fractions 1265.10 Antioxidant Activity of Juice Fractions 1295.11 Metabolism and Bioavailability of Flavonoids 1325.12 Dietary Polyphenols and Prevention of Diseases 1355.12.1 Polyphenols and cardiovascular diseases 1355.12.2 Polyphenols and cancer 1365.13 Increasing Health Benefi cial Properties of Juices 137References 1396 Cruciferous Vegetable-Derived Isothiocyanates and Cancer Prevention 147Ravi P. Sahu and Sanjay K. Srivastava6.1 Introduction 1476.2 Metabolism of Xenobiotics 1496.3 ITCs and Inhibition of Cancer 1506.3.1 Pancreatic cancer 1506.3.2 Brain cancer 1526.3.3 Prostate cancer 1526.3.4 Lung cancer 1546.3.5 Breast cancer 1556.3.6 Colon cancer 1566.3.7 Hepatic cancer 1566.3.8 Bladder cancer 1576.3.9 Multiple myeloma (MM) 1586.3.10 Head and neck squamous cancer 1596.3.11 Ovarian cancer 1596.3.12 Skin cancer 160Acknowledgments 161References 1617 The Disease-Preventive Potential of Some Popular and Underutilized Seeds 171Rajeev Bhat7.1 Introduction 1717.2 Oil Seeds and Their Therapeutic Potential 1727.2.1 Nigella seeds (Nigella sativa L.) 1727.2.2 Sunfl ower seed (Helianthus annuus L.) 1727.2.3 Groundnut seed (Arachis hypogea L.) 1837.2.4 Sesame seeds (Sesamum indicum L.) 1847.2.5 Oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) 1847.2.6 Saffl ower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) 1847.2.7 Linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) 1857.3 Spice Seeds as Medicine 1857.3.1 Coriander seeds (Coriandrum satium L.) 1857.3.2 Caraway (Cumin carvi L.) 1867.3.3 Pepper seeds (Piper nigrum L.) 1867.3.4 Cumin seeds (Cuminum cyminum L.) 1867.3.5 Fenugreek seeds (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) 1877.4 Legumes and Medicinal Use 1877.4.1 Soybeans (Glycine max (L.) Merrill) 1877.4.2 Mucuna pruriens L. 1887.4.3 Tamarind seeds (Tamaridus indica L.) 1887.5 Underutilized Seeds 1897.5.1 Perilla (Perilla frutescens [Hassk.]) 1897.5.2 Hunteria umbellata ([K. Schum] Hallier f.) 1897.5.3 Microula sikkimensis (Hemsl.) 1897.5.4 Chinese chive seeds (Allium tuberosum Rottl.) 1907.5.5 Grape seeds (Vitis vinifera L.) 1907.5.6 Pumpkin seeds (Cucurbita sp.) 1917.5.7 Horse chestnut seeds (Aesculus hippocastanum L.) 1927.6 Future Outlook 192References 1938 Effects of Carotenoids and Retinoids on Immune-Mediated Chronic Inflammation in Infl ammatory Bowel Disease 213Hua Zhang, Ming Fan, and Gopinadhan Paliyath8.1 Introduction 2138.2 Carotenoids 2138.3 IBDs 2148.4 Phytochemicals and Downregulation of IBD 2158.4.1 Antioxidative capacity of carotenoids to reduce oxidative stress generated from inflammation 2158.4.2 Immune-modulating activity of carotenoids 2168.5 Effects of Carotenoids on Immune Genetic Mechanism of IBD 2218.5.1 Potential role of retinoid receptors in attenuation of inflammatory diseases 2228.5.2 Modulation of inflammatory responses through activation of nuclear receptors containing RXR heterodimers 2238.6 Effects of Retinoids and Carotenoids on the Oxidative Stress Signaling Pathway 226References 2299 Ruminant Trans Fat as Potential Nutraceutical Components to Prevent Cancer and Cardiovascular Disease 235Ye Wang, Catherine J. Field, and Spencer D. Proctor9.1 Introduction 2359.2 c9,t11-CLA Isomer and Health Implications 2379.2.1 CLA modulates carcinogenesis 2379.3 Mechanisms of CLA Action on Cancer 2459.4 CLA Modulates CHD Risk Factors 2459.5 Mechanisms of CLA Action on CHD 2469.6 Vaccenic Acid 2529.6.1 VA modulates carcinogenesis 2539.6.2 VA modulates CVD risk factors 2539.7 Dairy Fat Enriched with VA and CLA 2549.7.1 Enriched dairy fat modulates carcinogenesis 2549.7.2 Enriched dairy fat modulates CVD risk factors 2559.8 Discussion 255References 25610 Nanotechnology for Cerebral Delivery of Nutraceuticals for the Treatment of Neurodegenerative Diseases 263Jasjeet Kaur Sahni, Sihem Doggui, Lé Dao, and Charles Ramassamy10.1 Introduction 26310.2 Oxidative Stress in Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) and AD 26410.3 Efficacy of Selected Components of Nutraceutical Compounds in the Amyloid Cascade and in the Prevention of AD 26610.4 Targeted NPs for Delivery of Bioactives Compounds from Foods for the Treatment of AD 27210.4.1 Catechins coupled with NPs 27210.4.2 NPs targeted with ApoE containing curcumin 27310.4.3 Resveratrol-loaded NPs protect againt Aß-induced toxicity 27510.5 Conclusion 275References 27511 Cancer Prevention by Polyphenols: Influence on Signal Transduction and Gene Expression 285Fatima Hakimuddin and Gopinadhan Paliyath11.1 Introduction 28511.2 Genetic Mechanisms of Carcinogenesis 28511.3 Biochemical Mechanisms of Carcinogenesis 28711.3.1 Pathways and signals involved in neoplastic cell transformation and carcinogenesis 28711.3.2 Extracellular signal transduction 28811.3.3 Intracellular signal transduction 28911.4 Signaling Pathways in Breast Cancer 29111.4.1 Calcium homeostasis and signaling 29211.4.2 Role of calcium in regulating cell proliferation and cell cycle 29311.4.3 Regulation of the cell cycle by calmodulin 29311.4.4 Calcium signaling and cell death 29311.4.5 Mitochondria, calcium signaling, and apoptosis 29411.5 Cancer Prevention and Therapy 29411.5.1 Targeted therapies 29411.5.2 Phytochemicals and cancer prevention 29611.6 Grapes and Red Wine as a Dietary Source of Polyphenols 29811.6.1 Health benefi ts of red wine 29811.6.2 Modulation of signaling pathways by fl avonoids 30611.7 Genetic Approach: Identifi cation of Flavonoid Mediated Molecular Targets 30811.8 Estrogen Metabolism, Breast Cancer, and Flavonoids 31111.9 Polyphenols and Estrogen Signaling 312References 31312 Potato–Herb Synergies as Food Designs for Hyperglycemia and Hypertension Management 325Fahad Saleem, Ali Hussein Eid, and Kalidas Shetty12.1 Introduction 32512.2 Phenolic-Enriched Chilean Potato and Select Species of Apiaceae and Lamiaceae Families in Diet 32712.3 Combination of Potato with Seeds and/or Herbs for Hypertension and Hyperglycemia Management 33112.3.1 Chilean potato (Solanum tuberosum ssp. tubersocum L.) 33112.3.2 Apiaceae family 33312.3.3 Lamiaceae family 33512.4 Conclusions: Combining the Chilean Potato with Seeds and Herbs from the Apiaceae and Lamiaceae Families 336References 33813 Fermentation-Based Processing of Food Botanicals for Mobilization of Phenolic Phytochemicals for Type 2 Diabetes Management 341Chandrakant Ankolekar and Kalidas Shetty13.1 Introduction 34113.2 Diabetes: The Rising Burden 34213.3 Fermentation and Health: A Historical Perspective 34213.4 Fermentation: Adding Value 34313.4.1 Preservation of food through acid/alcohol formation 34313.4.2 Enrichment of food substrates through formation of micro and macro nutrients 34413.4.3 Flavor, aroma, and texture development 34413.4.4 Detoxification of substrates during fermentation 34513.5 Phenolic Antioxidants and Diabetes Management 34513.6 Microbial Aerobic Growth and Fermentation and Its Anti-Diabetes Potential by Phenolic and Antioxidant Mobilization 34613.6.1 Solid State Growth (SSG) 34613.6.2 Liquid state (submerged) fermentation 34713.7 Fruit Juice Fermentation for Healthy Food Ingredients for Management of Type 2 Diabetes 34813.7.1 Apple juice fermentation 34813.7.2 Pear juice fermentation 34913.7.3 Cherry juice fermentation 34913.8 Summary 350References 35114 Postharvest Strategies to Enhance Bioactive Ingredients for Type 2 Diabetes Management and Heart Health 357Dipayan Sarkar and Kalidas Shetty14.1 Introduction 35714.2 Changing Dietary Patterns: A Historical Perspective 35714.3 Noncommunicable Chronic Diseases: Era of New Global Epidemics 35814.4 Healthy Diet: “Prevention Is Better Than Cure” 36014.4.1 Fruits and vegetables: from garden of eden to modern horticulture 36014.5 Bioactive Ingredients 36114.6 Dietary Polyphenols: Impact on Human Health 36214.6.1 Role of polyphenols in glucose metabolism 36214.6.2 Polyphenols and cardiovascular disease 36414.7 Phenolic Biosynthesis: Biological Mechanism to Improve Dietary Polyphenols in Plant Models 36514.8 Postharvest Strategies to Improve Bioactive Ingredients in Fruits and Vegetables 36714.8.1 Temperature 36714.8.2 Light and oxygen 36814.8.3 Chemical treatment and natural compounds 36814.9 Phenolic-Linked Antioxidant Activity During Postharvest Stages in Fruits and Relevance for Type 2 Diabetes 36914.10 Future Direction of Research: When Functional Food and Diet Become “Panacea” 37014.10.1 Stage 1: physiology and growth during germination to maturity 37014.10.2 Stage 2: postharvest management 37114.10.3 Stage 3: food processing 37114.10.4 Stage 4: biotechnological tools 37214.10.5 Stage 5: in vitro studies 37214.10.6 Stage 6: animal, clinical, and epidemiological studies 37214.10.7 Stage 7: marketing, awareness, and education 37314.11 Conclusions 373References 37315 Enhancing Functional Food Ingredients in Fruits and Vegetables 381Shaila Wadud and Gopinadhan Paliyath15.1 Introduction 38115.2 Strategies for Nutritional Enhancement 38215.3 Improving the Mineral Content of Plant Foods 38315.3.1 Iron and zinc 38415.4 Improving the Antioxidants Content of Plant Foods 38515.4.1 Lycopene and ß-carotene 38515.4.2 Vitamin E 38715.4.3 Flavonoids 38715.5 Improving the Amino Acid Content of Proteins of Plant Foods 38915.6 Improving the Fatty Acid Composition of Plant Seed Oil 39015.7 Influence of Processing and Storage in the Nutritive Value of Plant Foods 39115.7.1 Processing of plant oils 39115.7.2 Processing of fruits and vegetables 391References 392Index 395

Select Guide Rating