Food Processing Handbook, 2 Volume Set

James G. Brennan qualified with a BSc(Hons) degree in Dairy Science from University College Cork, Ireland, in 1959. In 1960 he obtained an MSc degree, by research, in the same subject. Following a short spell in industry he moved to the National College of Food Technology (NCFT), Weybridge, UK, to undertake a postgraduate course in Food Technology. On successful completion of that course he joined the academic staff of NCFT. In 1966 NCFT became part of the University of Reading. In 1982 NCFT moved from Weybridge to the main University of Reading campus. Mr Brennan continued as a member of the academic staff of the University of Reading until his retirement in 2002, completing over forty years of service. His teaching interests were mainly in food dehydration, food packaging and separation operations. His research interests were in the fundamentals of dehydration and physical/textural properties of foods and their measurement. He supervised over twenty PhD students and published well over one hundred research and technical papers. He is author of a book on food dehydration and coauthor with three colleagues of a well known book on food engineering operations. He edited and contributed material to the first edition of this book. He also collaborated with industry in a number of projects. Together with his wife, Anne, he travelled widely during his career including extended stays teaching and researching in Australia and the USA. In retirement he continues to write, edit and review papers and books in his field. Alistair S. Grandison qualified with a BSc (Hons) in Biochemistry from the University of Liverpool in 1973 and a PhD from the same university in 1976. Following a short spell at the Royal Liverpool Hospital he moved to the National Institute for Research in Dairying where he worked on cheese and dairy products. In 1987 he moved to the University of Reading as a lecturer. He is currently a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences where his teaching interests include dairy science and food processing in general. His research has covered many aspects of dairy science and technology including the lactoperoxidase system, separation processes and the coagulation of milk and manfacture of dairy products, frequently involving industrial collaboration. He has supervised 25 PhD students and published around 150 research papers, edited one book and written a number of book chapters.

• Preface to the Second Edition xvPreface to the First Edition xviiList of Contributors xixContent of Volume 11 Postharvest Handling and Preparation of Foods for Processing 1Alistair S. Grandison1.1 Introduction 11.2 Properties of Raw Food Materials and Their Susceptibility to Deterioration and Damage 21.2.1 Raw Material Properties 31.2.1.1 Geometric Properties 31.2.1.2 Color 41.2.1.3 Texture 41.2.1.4 Flavor 51.2.1.5 Functional Properties 51.2.2 Raw Material Specifications 61.2.3 Deterioration of Raw Materials 61.2.4 Damage to Raw Materials 71.2.5 Improving Processing Characteristics through Selective Breeding and Genetic Engineering 71.3 Storage and Transportation of Raw Materials 91.3.1 Storage 91.3.1.1 Temperature 101.3.1.2 Humidity 111.3.1.3 Composition of Atmosphere 121.3.1.4 Other Considerations 121.3.2 Transportation 131.4 Raw Material Cleaning 131.4.1 Dry Cleaning Methods 141.4.2 Wet Cleaning Methods 171.4.3 Peeling 201.5 Sorting and Grading 201.5.1 Criteria and Methods of Sorting 201.5.2 Grading 231.6 Blanching 251.6.1 Mechanisms and Purposes of Blanching 251.6.2 Processing Conditions 271.6.3 Blanching Equipment 271.7 Sulfiting of Fruits and Vegetables 28References 292 Thermal Processing 31Michael J. Lewis and Soojin Jun2.1 Introduction 312.1.1 Reasons for Heating Foods 322.1.2 Safety and Quality Issues 332.1.3 Product Range 342.2 Reaction Kinetics 352.2.1 Microbial Inactivation 352.2.2 Heat Resistance at Constant Temperature 352.3 Temperature Dependence 372.3.1 Batch and Continuous Processing 392.3.2 Continuous Heat Exchangers 422.3.2.1 Direct Heating 442.4 Heat Processing Methods 462.4.1 Thermization 462.4.2 Pasteurization 472.4.2.1 HTST Pasteurization 482.4.2.2 Tunnel (Spray) Pasteurizers 512.4.2.3 Extended Shelf Life Products 522.4.3 Sterilization 522.4.3.1 In-Container Processing 522.4.3.2 UHT Processing 602.5 Special Problems with Viscous and Particulate Products 652.6 Ohmic Heating 672.6.1 Introduction 672.6.2 Fundamental Principles of Ohmic Heating 672.6.2.1 Electrochemical Reaction on Electrodes 682.6.2.2 Heating Pattern of Multiphase Food in Ohmic System 692.6.2.3 Modeling of Ohmic Heating 702.7 Filling Procedures 722.8 Storage 72References 733 Evaporation and Dehydration 77James G. Brennan3.1 Evaporation (Concentration, Condensing) 773.1.1 General Principles 773.1.2 Equipment Used in Vacuum Evaporation 793.1.2.1 Vacuum Pans 793.1.2.2 Short Tube Vacuum Evaporators 803.1.2.3 Long-Tube Evaporators 813.1.2.4 Plate Evaporators 823.1.2.5 Agitated Thin-Film Evaporators 833.1.2.6 Centrifugal Evaporators 833.1.2.7 Refractance Window Evaporator 833.1.2.8 Ancillary Equipment 843.1.3 Multiple-Effect Evaporation 843.1.4 Vapor Recompression 853.1.5 Applications for Evaporation 863.1.5.1 Concentrated Liquid Products 863.1.5.2 Evaporation as a Preparatory Step to Further Processing 883.1.5.3 The Use of Evaporation to Reduce Transport, Storage, and Packaging Costs 893.2 Dehydration (Drying) 913.2.1 General Principles 913.2.2 Drying Solid Foods in Heated Air 923.2.3 Equipment Used in Hot Air Drying of Solid Food Pieces 943.2.3.1 Cabinet (Tray) Dryer 943.2.3.2 Tunnel Dryer 943.2.3.3 Conveyor (Belt) Dryer 953.2.3.4 Bin Dryer 953.2.3.5 Fluidized Bed Dryer 963.2.3.6 Pneumatic (Flash) Dryer 983.2.3.7 Rotary Dryer 993.2.4 Drying of Solid Foods by Direct Contact with a Heated Surface 993.2.5 Equipment Used in Drying Solid Foods by Contact with a Heated Surface 1003.2.5.1 Vacuum Cabinet (Tray or Shelf) Dryer 1003.2.5.2 Double Cone Vacuum Dryer 1003.2.6 Freeze Drying (Sublimation Drying, Lyophilization) of Solid Foods 1013.2.7 Equipment Used in Freeze Drying Solid Foods 1023.2.7.1 Cabinet (Batch) Freeze Dryer 1023.2.7.2 Tunnel (Semi-continuous) Freeze Dryer 1033.2.7.3 Continuous-Freeze Dryers 1043.2.7.4 Vacuum Spray Freeze Dryer 1043.2.8 Drying by the Application of Radiant (Infrared) Heat 1053.2.9 Drying by the Application of Dielectric Energy 1053.2.10 Electrohydrodynamic Drying (EHD) 1073.2.11 Osmotic Dehydration 1083.2.12 Sun and Solar Drying 1103.2.13 Drying Food Liquids and Slurries in Heated Air 1113.2.13.1 Spray Drying 1113.2.14 Drying Liquids and Slurries by Direct Contact With a Heated Surface 1163.2.14.1 Drum (Roller, Film) Dryer 1163.2.14.2 Vacuum Band (Belt) Dryer 1173.2.14.3 Refractance Window Drying System 1183.2.15 Other Methods Used for Drying Liquids and Slurries 1183.2.16 Applications of Dehydration 1193.2.16.1 Dehydrated Vegetable Products 1193.2.16.2 Dehydrated Fruit Products 1213.2.16.3 Dehydrated Dairy Products 1223.2.16.4 Instant Coffee and Tea 1233.2.16.5 Dehydrated Meat Products 1233.2.16.6 Dehydrated Fish Products 1233.2.17 Stability of Dehydrated Foods 124References 1264 Freezing 131Jos´e Mauricio Pardo and Keshavan Niranjan4.1 Introduction 1314.2 Refrigeration Methods and Equipment 1314.2.1 Plate Contact Systems 1324.2.2 Gas Contact Refrigerators 1324.2.3 Immersion and Liquid Contact Refrigeration 1334.2.4 Cryogenic Freezing 1344.3 Low Temperature Production 1354.3.1 Mechanical Refrigeration Cycle 1354.3.1.1 The Pressure and Enthalpy Diagram 1374.3.1.2 The Real Refrigeration Cycle (Standard Vapor Compression Cycle) 1384.3.2 Equipment for a Mechanical Refrigeration System 1394.3.2.1 Evaporators 1394.3.2.2 Condensers 1404.3.2.3 Compressors 1414.3.2.4 Expansion Valves 1424.3.2.5 Refrigerants 1424.3.3 Common Terms Used in Refrigeration System Design 1434.3.3.1 Cooling Load 1444.3.3.2 Coefficient of Performance 1444.3.3.3 Refrigerant Flow Rate 1444.3.3.4 Work Done by the Compressor 1454.3.3.5 Heat Exchanged in the Condenser and Evaporator 1454.4 Freezing Kinetics 1454.4.1 Formation of the Microstructure during Solidification 1464.4.2 Mathematical Models for Freezing Kinetics 1474.4.2.1 Neumann’s Model 1484.4.2.2 Plank’s Model 1484.4.2.3 Cleland’s Model 1494.4.2.4 Pham’s Model 1494.5 Effects of Refrigeration on Food Quality 150References 1515 Irradiation 153Alistair S. Grandison5.1 Introduction 1535.2 Principles of Irradiation 1535.2.1 Physical Effects 1545.2.2 Chemical Effects 1585.2.3 Biological Effects 1585.3 Equipment 1605.3.1 Isotope Sources 1605.3.2 Machine Sources 1625.3.3 Control and Dosimetry 1625.4 Safety Aspects 1655.5 Effects on the Properties of Food 1655.6 Detection Methods for Irradiated Foods 1675.7 Applications and Potential Applications 1685.7.1 General Effects and Mechanisms of Irradiation 1695.7.1.1 Inactivation of Microorganisms 1695.7.1.2 Inhibition of Sprouting 1705.7.1.3 Delay of Ripening and Senescence 1715.7.1.4 Insect Disinfestation 1715.7.1.5 Elimination of Parasites 1715.7.1.6 Miscellaneous Effects on Food Properties and Processing 1725.7.1.7 Combination Treatments 1725.7.2 Applications to Particular Food Classes 1725.7.2.1 Meat and Meat Products 1725.7.2.2 Fish and Shellfish 1735.7.2.3 Fruits and Vegetables 1745.7.2.4 Bulbs and Tubers 1745.7.2.5 Spices and Herbs 1755.7.2.6 Cereals and Cereal Products 1755.7.2.7 Other Miscellaneous Foods 175References 1766 High Pressure Processing 179Margaret F. Patterson, Dave A. Ledward, Craig Leadley, and Nigel Rogers6.1 Introduction 1796.2 Effect of High Pressure on Microorganisms 1826.2.1 Bacterial Spores 1826.2.2 Vegetative Bacteria 1836.2.3 Yeasts and Molds 1836.2.4 Viruses 1846.2.5 Parasites 1846.2.6 Strain Variation within a Species 1856.2.7 Stage of Growth of Microorganisms 1856.2.8 Magnitude and Duration of the Pressure Treatment 1856.2.9 Effect of Temperature on Pressure Resistance 1856.2.10 Substrate 1866.2.11 Combination Treatments Involving Pressure 1866.2.12 Effect of High Pressure on the Microbiological Quality of Foods 1876.3 Ingredient Functionality 1886.4 Enzyme Activity 1896.5 Foaming and Emulsification 1916.6 Gelation 1936.7 Organoleptic Considerations 1956.8 Equipment for HPP 1966.8.1 HPP Systems 1966.9 Pressure Vessel Considerations 1976.9.1 High Pressure Pumps 1986.9.2 Control Systems 1996.10 Current and Potential Applications of HPP for Foods 200References 2017 Emerging Technologies for Food Processing 205Liliana Alamilla-Beltr´an, Jorge Welti-Chanes, Jos´e Jorge Chanona-P´erez, Ma de Jes ´us Perea-Flores, and Gustavo F. Guti´errez-L´opez7.1 Introduction 2057.2 Pulsed Electric Field Processing 2067.2.1 PEF Treatment Chambers 2077.2.2 Effects of PEF on Microorganisms 2087.2.3 Factors Affecting the Ability of PEF to Inactivate Microorganisms 2097.2.3.1 Processing Factors 2097.2.3.2 Microorganism Factors 2107.2.3.3 Food Factors 2107.2.4 Effects of PEF on Enzymes 2127.2.5 Other Applications of PEF 2147.3 Ultrasound Power 2157.3.1 Applications of Ultrasound in the Food Industry 2167.3.1.1 Low-Intensity Ultrasound 2167.3.1.2 High-Intensity Ultrasound 2177.3.2 Enzymes 2177.3.3 Microorganisms 2187.3.4 Fruits and Vegetables 2187.4 Other Technologies 2187.4.1 High-Pressure Carbon Dioxide 2187.4.2 Ozonization 2197.4.3 Plasma Processing 2207.5 Conclusions 220References 2218 Packaging 225James G. Brennan and Brian P.F. Day8.1 Introduction 2258.2 Factors Affecting the Choice of a Packaging Material and/or Container for a Particular Duty 2268.2.1 Mechanical Damage 2268.2.2 Permeability Characteristics 2268.2.3 Greaseproofness 2288.2.4 Temperature 2288.2.5 Light 2298.2.6 Chemical Compatibility of the Packaging Material and the Contents of the Package 2298.2.7 Protection against Microbial Contamination 2308.2.8 In-Package Microflora 2318.2.9 Protection against Insect and Rodent Infestation 2318.2.10 Taint 2328.2.11 Tamper-Evident/Resistant Packages 2328.2.12 Other Factors 2338.3 Materials and Containers Used for Packaging Foods 2338.3.1 Papers, Paperboards, and Fiberboards 2338.3.1.1 Papers 2338.3.1.2 Paperboards 2358.3.1.3 Molded Pulp 2368.3.1.4 Fiberboards 2368.3.1.5 Composite Containers 2368.3.2 Wooden Containers 2378.3.3 Textiles 2378.3.4 Flexible Films 2378.3.4.1 Regenerated Cellulose 2388.3.4.2 Cellulose Acetate 2398.3.4.3 Polyethylene 2398.3.4.4 Polyvinyl Chloride 2408.3.4.5 Polyvinylidene Chloride 2408.3.4.6 Polypropylene 2408.3.4.7 Polyester 2418.3.4.8 Polystyrene 2418.3.4.9 Polyamides 2418.3.4.10 Polycarbonate 2428.3.4.11 Polytetrafluoroethylene 2428.3.4.12 Ethylene-Vinyl Acetate Copolymers 2438.3.5 Metallized Films 2438.3.6 Flexible Laminates 2438.3.7 Heat-Sealing Equipment 2448.3.8 Packaging in Flexible Films and Laminates 2458.3.9 Rigid and Semi-rigid Plastic Containers 2478.3.9.1 Thermoforming 2478.3.9.2 Blow Molding 2478.3.9.3 Injection Molding 2488.3.9.4 Compression Molding 2488.3.10 Metal Materials and Containers 2488.3.10.1 Aluminum Foil 2488.3.10.2 Tinplate 2498.3.10.3 Electrolytic Chromium-Coated Steel 2508.3.10.4 Aluminum Alloy 2528.3.10.5 Metal Containers 2528.3.11 Glass and Glass Containers 2558.4 Modified Atmosphere Packaging 2588.5 Aseptic Packaging 2618.6 Active Packaging 2648.6.1 Introduction 2648.6.2 Oxygen Scavengers 2648.6.3 Carbon Dioxide Scavengers 2678.6.4 Carbon Dioxide Emitters 2678.6.5 Ethylene Scavengers 2688.6.6 Ethanol Emitters 2688.6.7 Moisture Absorbers 2698.6.8 Flavor/Odor Absorbers 2698.6.9 Antioxidant Release 2708.6.10 Antimicrobial Packaging 2708.6.11 Lactose and Cholesterol Removers 2718.6.12 UV Light Absorbers 2718.6.13 Other Active Packaging Systems 2728.7 Intelligent Packaging 2728.7.1 Introduction 2728.7.2 Time–Temperature Indicators (TTIs) 2728.7.3 Quality Indicators and Sensors 2738.7.3.1 Chemical Indicators 2738.7.3.2 Microbial Indicators 2738.7.3.3 Gas Concentration Indicators 2738.7.4 Radiofrequency Identification Devices (RFID) 2748.7.5 Other Intelligent Packaging Devices 2748.7.6 Consumer Attitudes, Safety, and Legal Aspects of Active and Intelligent Packaging 2758.8 The Role of Nanotechnology in Food Packaging 276References 276Content of Volume 29 Separations in Food Processing Part 1 281James G. Brennan and Alistair S. Grandison10 Separations in Food Processing: Part 2 – Membrane Processing, Ion Exchange, and Electrodialysis 331Michael J. Lewis and Alistair S. Grandison11 Mixing, Emulsification, and Size Reduction 363James G. Brennan12 Baking 407Stanley P. Cauvain13 Extrusion 429Paul Ainsworth14 Food Deep-Fat Frying 455Pedro Bouchon15 Safety in Food Processing 491Carol A. Wallace16 Traceability in Food Processing and Distribution 515Christopher Knight17 The Hygienic Design of Food Processing Plant 533Tony Hasting18 Process Control in Food Processing 559Keshavan Niranjan, Araya Ahromrit, and Ashok S. Khare19 Environmental Aspects of Food Processing 571Niharika Mishra, Ali Abd El-Aal Bakr, Keshavan Niranjan, and Gary Tucker20 Water and Waste Treatment 593R. Andrew Wilbey21 Process Realisation 623Kevan G. Leach22 Microscopy Techniques and Image Analysis for the Quantitative Evaluation of Food Microstructure 667Maria de Jes ´us Perea-Flores, Ang´elica Gabriela Mendoza-Madrigal, Jos´e Jorge Chanona-P´erez, Liliana Alamilla-Beltr´an, and Gustavo Fidel Gutierrez-L´opez23 Nanotechnology in the Food Sector 693Christopher J. Kirby24 Fermentation and the Use of Enzymes 727Dimitris CharalampopoulosIndex 753