Fat Mimetics for Food Applications

Miguel Ângelo Parente Ribeiro Cerqueira, Staff Researcher, International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory, Braga, Portugal Lorenzo Miguel Pastrana Castro, Staff Researcher, International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory, Braga, Portugal

• Foreword xvList of Contributors xviiPreface xxiAcknowledgements xxiiEditors xxiiiSection I Introduction to Fat Mimetics 11.1 Why Does the Food Industry Need Fat Mimetics? 3Miguel Ângelo Parente Ribeiro Cerqueira and Lorenzo Miguel Pastrana Castro1.1.1 The Role of Lipids in Foods and Human Nutrition 31.1.2 Current Status of Fats in the Food Industry 41.1.3 Food Trends and Fat Mimetics 51.2 Overview of the Structure-Property Relationship in Fat Mimetics 7Reed A. Nicholson and Alejandro G. Marangoni1.2.1 Introduction 71.2.2 Rheological Properties 81.2.3 Large Deformation Testing 101.2.4 Microstructure 111.2.5 Oil Binding Capacity 141.2.6 Conclusions and Next Steps 16Section II Materials and Methods Used for the Production of Fat Mimetics 212.1 Natural Wax-Based Oleogels for Food Application 23Bikash K. Pradhan, Satish Saigiri, Deepti Bharti, Doman Kim, and Kunal Pal2.1.1 Introduction 232.1.2 Mechanism of Oleogelation 242.1.3 Bibliography Meta-Analysis 252.1.4 Natural Waxes 262.1.4.1 Candelilla Wax 262.1.4.1.1 Chemical Composition of CW 262.1.4.1.2 Physico-Chemical Properties of CW 262.1.4.2 Rice Bran Wax 272.1.4.2.1 Chemical Composition of RBW 282.1.4.2.2 Physico-Chemical Properties of RBW 282.1.4.3 Beeswax 282.1.4.3.1 Chemical Composition of BW 292.1.4.3.2 Physico-Chemical Properties of BW 292.1.5 Applications of the Natural Wax-Based Oleogels 292.1.5.1 Candelilla Wax 302.1.5.2 Rice Bran Wax 302.1.5.3 Beeswax 322.1.6 Conclusion 342.2 Phytosterols and Other Sterols 38Artur J. Martins2.2.1 Introduction 382.2.2 γ-Oryzanol-Sterols System 402.2.2.1 Crystallites and Oil Gelation 402.2.2.2 γ-Oryzanol-Sterols Mechanism 412.2.2.3 Hydrates 482.2.3 Other Combinations Including Sterols 502.2.4 Perspective on the Industrial Applicability 502.2.5 Conclusion 522.3 Lecithin 57Thaís Jordânia Silva, Paula Kiyomi Okuro, Mayanny Gomes da Silva, Ana Paula Badan Ribeiro, and Rosiane Lopes da Cunha2.3.1 Introduction 572.3.2 Lecithin Chemistry 582.3.2.1 Types and Composition 582.3.2.2 Technological Manufacture of Lecithin 592.3.2.3 Strategies of Lecithin Modification 622.3.2.3.1 Physical Modification 622.3.2.3.2 Enzymatic Modification 632.3.2.3.3 Chemical Modification 632.3.2.4 Lecithin Self-Assembly: Dependence of Solvent Medium 642.3.3 Exploring Techno-Functionalities of Lecithin 662.3.3.1 Conventional Fat: The Role of Lecithin as Crystallization Modifier in Lipid Systems 662.3.4 Application of Lecithin in Alternative Oil-Structuring Routes 682.3.4.1 Oleogels 682.3.4.2 Emulsion Strategies 722.3.5 Beyond Oil-Structuring Purposes: Role of Lecithin as an Emulsifier and in the Vehiculation of Bioactive Components 732.3.6 Food Applications 742.3.6.1 Margarines 752.3.6.2 Bakery Products 762.3.6.3 Chocolate 772.3.6.4 Dairy Products 772.3.7 Final Remarks and Perspectives 782.4 Mono‐ and Diglycerides 88Sofia Melchior, Stella Plazzotta, Sonia Calligaris, and Lara Manzocco2.4.1 Introduction 882.4.2 Monoglycerides and Diglycerides 882.4.3 Fat Mimetics Based on Mono- and Diglycerides 892.4.3.1 Hydrogels 902.4.3.1.1 Effect of Compositional Factors 912.4.3.1.2 Effect of Processing Factors 922.4.3.2 Oleogels 922.4.3.2.1 Effect of Compositional Factors 932.4.3.2.2 Effect of Processing Factors 942.4.3.3 From Oleogels to Oleofoams 952.4.3.3.1 Effect of Compositional Factors 962.4.3.3.2 Effect of Processing Factors 962.4.3.4 Gelled Emulsions 972.4.3.4.1 Oil-in-Water Gelled Emulsions 972.4.3.4.2 Effect of Compositional Factors 982.4.3.4.3 Effect of Processing Factors 992.4.3.5 From O/W Gelled Emulsions to High Internal Phase Emulsions (HIPE) 1002.4.3.6 Water-in-oil Gelled Emulsions 1002.4.3.7 From W/O Gelled Emulsions to High Internal Phase Emulsions (HIPE) 1022.4.4 Food Applications 1022.4.5 Novel Functionalities of MG and DG Fat Mimetics 1042.4.6 Conclusions 1052.5 Oleogels Based on Fatty Acids and Fatty Alcohols: Toward Oil Foams 112Anne-Laure Fameau and Alejandro G. Marangoni2.5.1 Introduction 1122.5.2 Structure and Properties of Oleogel Based on Fatty Acids or Fatty Alcohols 1132.5.2.1 Definition and Properties of Fatty Alcohol 1132.5.2.2 Definition and Properties of Fatty Acids 1142.5.2.3 Fatty Alcohols as Oleogelators 1162.5.2.4 Fatty Acids as Oleogelators 1172.5.3 Mixture of Fatty Acids and Fatty Alcohol to Improve Oleogel Properties 1172.5.3.1 Effect of R on the Crystal Structure 1182.5.3.2 Effect of R on the Microstructure of the Oleogels 1192.5.3.3 Effect of R on the Thermal Behavior and Solid Fat Content of Oleogels 1192.5.3.4 Effect of R on Oleogel Properties: Mechanical Strength and Stability 1202.5.4 Oil Foams Based on Fatty Acids and Fatty Alcohols 1222.5.4.1 Definition of Oil Foams Stabilized by Crystalline Particles 1222.5.4.2 Oil Foams Based on Fatty Acids and Fatty Alcohols 1232.5.4.3 Controlling Oil Foam Properties by Tuning the Ratio between Fatty Alcohol and Fatty Acids 1252.5.4.4 Application of Oil Foams to Develop Food Products 1272.5.5 Conclusion and Perspectives 1282.6 Proteins as Fat Replacers in the Food Industry 133Davanam Srikanth, Dharani Gopi, Sunil, C. K., Karunairaj Michael, and Ashish Rawson2.6.1 Introduction 1332.6.2 Fat Mimetics 1352.6.3 Protein-Based Fat Mimetics 1372.6.3.1 Animal Protein-Based Fat Replacers 1382.6.3.1.1 Casein 1382.6.3.1.2 Whey Protein 1392.6.3.1.3 Microparticulated Whey Protein 1392.6.3.1.4 Simplesse & Dairy-Lo 1402.6.3.1.5 Egg White Protein 1402.6.3.1.6 Plasma Protein 1412.6.3.1.7 Collagen Protein 1412.6.3.1.8 Gelatin Protein 1422.6.3.2 Plant Protein-Based Fat Replacers 1422.6.3.2.1 Soy Protein 1422.6.3.2.2 Corn Zein Protein 1422.6.3.2.3 Wheat Gluten Protein 1432.6.3.2.4 Pea Protein 1442.6.3.2.5 Lupin Protein 1442.6.4 Properties of Protein-Based Fat Mimetics 1442.6.5 Factors Affecting the Acceptability of Protein-Based Fat Mimetics 1452.6.5.1 Sensory Attributes 1452.6.5.2 Nutritional Properties 1462.6.5.3 Hygienic Aspects 1462.6.5.4 Cost 1462.6.5.5 Health Aspects 1462.6.5.6 Marketing 1462.6.5.7 Convenience 1472.6.5.8 Heat Stability 1472.6.6 Applications of Protein-Based Fat Mimetics 1472.6.6.1 Bakery Products 1472.6.6.2 Chocolate and Confectionery Products 1482.6.6.3 Dairy Products 1482.6.6.4 Meat Products 1492.6.6.5 Other Applications 1492.6.7 Future of Protein-Based Fat Mimetics 1502.7 Polysaccharide-Based Oleogels 155Andrew J. Gravelle2.7.1 Introduction 1552.7.2 Direct Polymeric Structuring 1562.7.2.1 Ethylcellulose 1562.7.2.2 EC-Based Hybrid Oleogelation Systems 1582.7.2.2.1 Monoacylglycerol 1592.7.2.2.2 Stearyl Alcohol and Stearic Acid 1602.7.2.2.3 Lauric Acid 1632.7.2.2.4 Behenic Acid 1632.7.2.2.5 Lecithin 1642.7.2.2.6 EC/MAG Binary and Ternary Blends (Edible Shortenings) 1652.7.2.3 EC-Based Oleogels in Food Applications and Nutrient Delivery 1672.7.2.4 Chitin 1702.7.3 Indirect Structuring 1712.7.3.1 Emulsion-Templating 1722.7.3.2 Aerogel-Templating 1772.7.3.2.1 Foam-Templating 1782.7.3.2.2 Supercritical CO 2 -Derived Templates 1812.7.4 Conclusion 183Section III Methodologies for the Characterisation of Fat Mimetics 1933.1 Rheology and Texture Analysis 195Luiz Henrique Fasolin, Carolina Siqueira Franco Picone, Gabrielli Nunes Clímaco, and Felipe de Andrade Maia3.1.1 Introduction 1953.1.2 Rheology Principles 1953.1.2.1 Large Deformation Tests 1983.1.2.1.1 Rheological Behavior/Viscosity Measurements 1983.1.2.1.2 Time-Dependence 1993.1.2.2 Small Deformation Tests 2013.1.2.2.1 Transient Tests 2013.1.2.2.2 Oscillatory Tests 2033.1.3 Texture Principles 2053.1.3.1 Fundamental Tests 2083.1.3.1.1 Uniaxial Compression 2083.1.3.2 Empiric Tests 2093.1.3.2.1 Puncture 2093.1.3.2.2 Spreadability 2093.2 Application of Small-Angle X-Ray Scattering and Small-Angle Neutron Scattering to Fat Mimetics 214Elliot Paul Gilbert3.2.1 Introduction 2143.2.2 Fundamentals of Small-Angle Scattering 2163.2.2.1 SAS Instrumentation 2213.2.2.2 SAS Experiment and Data Collection 2223.2.2.3 Data Analysis and Interpretation 2223.2.3 Recent Experimental SAS and USAS Examples to Oleogels 2263.2.3.1 Oleic Acid–Sodium Oleate 2273.2.3.2 Natural Waxes 2333.2.3.3 β-sitosterol (and Other Phytosterols) with γ-oryzanol 2343.2.3.4 Lecithin 2353.2.3.5 Mono‐, Di- and Triglycerides 2373.2.3.6 Carbohydrate and Proteins 2393.2.4 Conclusions and Outlook 2393.3 Sensory Evaluation of Fat Reduction in Foods 245Patricia Severiano-Pérez, Aurora Pintor-Jardines, Mariel Calderón-Oliver, and Hector Escalona-Buendía3.3.1 Introduction 2453.3.2 Generalities on Fat Replacement and Sensory Evaluation 2463.3.3 Effect of Fat Replacement in Food Products 2473.3.3.1 Cereal and Baking Products 2523.3.3.2 Meat Products 2523.3.3.3 Dairy Products 2563.3.4 Conclusion and Final Considerations 2593.4 Gastrointestinal Fate of Lipid-Based Formulations as Fat Mimetics 265Maria A. Azevedo and Catarina Gonçalves3.4.1 Introduction 2653.4.2 Lipid Digestion 2663.4.2.1 In Vitro Models 2663.4.2.2 Factors Affecting Lipid Digestion 2673.4.3 Conclusion 2733.5 Nutritional and Functional Properties of Fat Mimetics 277Xiao-Wei Chen and Xiao-Quan Yang3.5.1 Introduction 2773.5.2 Emerging Fat Mimetics 2783.5.2.1 Oleogels 2793.5.2.2 Templated Oleogels 2833.5.2.3 Emulsion Gels 2873.5.2.4 Structured Emulsions 2913.5.3 Multifunctionality of Fat Mimetics in Food Applications 2943.5.3.1 Replacement of Saturated Fats 2953.5.3.2 Reducing Energy Intake in Diets 2973.5.3.3 In Vitro and In Vivo Digestion 2983.5.3.4 Controlled Delivery Carriers and Release of Bioactive Molecules 2983.4.3.5 Texture Design and Modification 2993.5.3.5 Reduction in Lipid Oxidation 3013.5.4 Conclusion and Outlook 302Section IV Food Applications 3134.1 Processed Meat Products 315Yogesh Kumar, Akhoon Asrar Bashir, and Poonam Choudhary4.1.1 Introduction 3154.1.2 Definition and Classification 3164.1.3 Type of Fat Mimetics 3174.1.3.1 Carbohydrate-Based Fat Mimetics 3174.1.3.1.1 Starch and Starch Derivatives-Based Fat Mimetics 3224.1.3.1.2 Cellulose-Based Fat Mimetics 3234.1.3.1.3 Dietary Fiber-Based Fat Mimetics 3254.1.3.1.4 Gelling and Bulking Agent-Based Fat Mimetics 3274.1.3.1.5 Gum-based Fat Mimetics 3304.1.3.2 Protein-Based Fat Mimetics 3314.1.3.3 Fat-Based Fat Mimetics 3324.1.4 Conclusion 3324.2 Fat Mimetics in Dairy Products 343Ainaz Alizadeh and Mitra Soofi4.2.1 Introduction 3434.2.2 The Characteristics of Milk Fat 3444.2.3 The Role of Milk Fat in Dairy Products 3454.2.3.1 Milk Fat and Dairy Product’s Sensory Characteristics 3454.2.3.2 Milk Fat and Dairy Products Texture 3454.2.3.3 Milk Fat and Dairy Products Melting Properties 3464.2.4 Issues with Low-Fat Dairy Products 3464.2.5 Fat Mimetics in Dairy Products 3464.2.5.1 Carbohydrate-Based Fat Mimetics 3474.2.5.2 Protein-Based Fat Mimetics 3494.2.5.3 Lipid-Based Fat Mimetics 3494.2.5.3.1 Oleogels as a Possible Fat Mimetics 3504.2.6 Applications of Fat Mimetics in Different Dairy Products 3524.2.6.1 Cheese 3524.2.6.2 Ice Cream 3554.2.6.3 Yogurt 3584.2.6.4 Dairy Dessert and Beverages 3604.2.7 Conclusion 3614.3 Margarine and Fat Spreads 366Filip Van Bockstaele, Ivana A. Penagos, Kato Rondou, and Koen Dewettinck4.3.1 Introduction 3664.3.1.1 Definitions and Legislation 3664.3.1.2 Microstructure 3674.3.1.3 Formulation 3704.3.1.4 Processing 3704.3.1.5 Properties 3714.3.2 Alternative Structuring Approaches for Margarines and Fat Spreads 3724.3.2.1 Stabilization Mechanisms 3724.3.2.2 Network Stabilization – Continuous Phase 3754.3.2.2.1 Waxes 3754.3.2.2.2 Mono- and Diglycerides 3794.3.2.2.3 Ethylcellulose 3814.3.2.2.4 Phytosterols 3824.3.2.2.5 Lecithin 3834.3.2.3 Network Stabilization–Dispersed Phase 3834.3.2.4 Bigels 3854.3.3 Conclusion 3864.4 Baked Products 392Ilkem Demirkesen, Suyong Lee and Behic Mert4.4.1 Introduction 3924.4.2 Fat Mimetics in Bakery Products 3934.4.2.1 Fat Mimetics in Bread Formulation 3944.4.2.2 Fat Mimetics in Cookie/Biscuit Formulation 3974.4.2.3 Fat Mimetics in Cake/Muffin Formulation 4064.4.3 Conclusion 414Section V Industrial Perspective 4195. 1 Molecular Gels–Barriers, Advances, and Opportunities 421Michael A. Rogers5.1.1 Introduction 4215.1.2 Reliance Serendipitous Discovery 4215.1.3 Solvent Confluence on Gelation Outcome 4225.1.3.1 Dissecting Gelator and Solvent Molecular Features that Drive Self-Assembly–A Step Toward Rational Design 4235.1.3.2 Solvent Complexity of Edible Oils–An Opportunity for Advancement 4275.1.4 Emerging Low Molecular Mass Organogelating Technologies 4315.1.4.1 Peptide Gelators 4315.1.4.2 Sugar Gelators 4325.1.4.3 Lipids Gelators 4325.1.4.4 Mixed System Gelators 4345.1.5 Polymeric Gelation 4375.1.5.1 Emerging Polymeric Organogelating Technologies 4385.1.6 Conclusion 4395.2 Research and Development Toward the Commercialization of Fat Mimetics 447Miguel Ângelo Parente Ribeiro Cerqueira, Buse N. Gürbüz, and Lorenzo Miguel Pastrana Castro5.2.1 Introduction 4475.2.2 Research & Development in Fat Mimetics 4485.2.3 Patents and Commercial Products 4485.2.4 Conclusion 474Index 495