Fabrication Engineering at the Micro- and Nanoscale

Stephen A. Campbell is the Bordeau Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of Minnesota and a fellow of IEEE.

• * = This section provides background material.** = This section contains advanced material and can be omitted without loss of the basic content of the course.PART I. OVERVIEW AND MATERIALSChapter 1. An Introduction to Microelectronic Fabrication1.1 Microelectronic Technologies: A Simple Example1.2 Unit Processes and Technologies1.3 A Roadmap for the Course1.4 SummaryChapter 2. Semiconductor Substrates2.1 Phase Diagrams and Solid Solubility*2.2 Crystallography and Crystal Structure*2.3 Crystal Defects2.4 Czochralski Growth2.5 Bridgman Growth of GaAs2.6 Float Zone and Other Growth2.7 Wafer Preparation and Specifications2.8 Summary and Future TrendsProblemsReferencesPART II. UNIT PROCESSES I: HOT PROCESSING AND ION IMPLANTATIONChapter 3. Diffusion3.1 Fick's Diffusion Equation in One Dimension3.2 Atomistic Models of Diffusion 3.3 Analytic Solutions of Fick's Law 3.4 Diffusion Coefficients for Common Dopants 3.5 Analysis of Diffused Profiles 3.6 Diffusion in SiO3.7 Simulations of Diffusion Profiles 3.8 SummaryProblems References Chapter 4. Thermal Oxidation4.1 The Deal-Grove Model of Oxidation4.2 The Linear and Parabolic Rate Coefficients4.3 The Initial Oxidation Regime 4.4 The Structure of SiO2 4.5 Oxide Characterization 4.6 The Effects of Dopants During Oxidation and Polysilicon Oxidation 4.7 Silicon Oxynitrides 4.8 Alternative Gate Insulators** 4.9 Oxidation Systems 4.10 Numeric Oxidations** 4.11 Summary Problems References Chapter 5. Ion Implantation 5.1 Idealized Ion Implantation Systems 5.2 Coulomb Scattering* 5.3 Vertical Projected Range 5.4 Channeling and Lateral Projected Range 5.5 Implantation Damage 5.6 Shallow Junction Formation** 5.7 Buried Dielectrics** 5.8 Ion Implantation Systems: Problems and Concerns 5.9 Numerical Implanted Profiles**5.10 Summary Problems References Chapter 6. Rapid Thermal Processing 6.1 Gray Body Radiation, Heat Exchange, and Optical Absorption6.2 High Intensity Optical Sources and Chamber Design 6.3 Temperature Measurement 6.4 Thermoplastic Stress* 6.5 Rapid Thermal Activation of Impurities 6.6 Rapid Thermal Processing of Dielectrics 6.7 Silicidation and Contact Formation 6.8 Alternative Rapid Thermal Processing Systems 6.9 Summary Problems References PART III. UNIT PROCESSES 2: PATTERN TRANSFER Chapter 7. Optical Lithography 7.1 Lithography Overview 7.2 Diffraction* 7.3 The Modulation Transfer Function and Optical Exposures 7.4 Source Systems and Spatial Coherence 7.5 Contact/Proximity Printers 7.6 Projection Printers 7.7 Advanced Mask Concepts** 7.8 Surface Reflections and Standing Waves 7.9 Alignment 7.10 Summary Problems References Chapter 8. Photoresists 8.1 Photoresist Types 8.2 Organic Materials and Polymers* 8.3 Typical Reactions of DQN Positive Photoresist 8.4 Contrast Curves 8.5 The Critical Modulation Transfer Function 8.6 Applying and Developing Photoresist 8.7 Second-Order Exposure Effects 8.8 Advanced Photoresists and Photoresist Processes** 8.9 Summary Problems References Chapter 9. Nonoptical Lithographic Techniques** 9.1 Interactions of High Energy Beams with Matter* 9.2 Direct-Write Electron Beam Lithography Systems 9.3 Direct-Write Electron Beam Lithography: Summary and Outlook 9.4 X-ray and EUV Sources* 9.5 Proximity X-ray Exposure Systems 9.6 Membrane Masks for Proximity X-ray 9.7 EUV Lithography 9.8 Projection Electron Beam Lithography (SCALPEL) 9.9 E-beam and X-ray Resists 9.10 Radiation Damage in MOS Devices 9.11 Soft Lithography and Nanoimprint Lithography 9.12 Summary Problems References Chapter 10. Vacuum Science and Plasmas 10.1 The Kinetic Theory of Gases* 10.2 Gas Flow and Conductance 10.3 Pressure Ranges and Vacuum Pumps10.4 Vacuum Seals and Pressure Measurement 10.5 The DC Glow Discharge* 10.6 RF Discharges 10.7 High Density Plasmas 10.8 Summary Problems References Chapter 11. Etching 11.1 Wet Etching 11.2 Chemical Mechanical Polishing 11.3 Basic Regimes of Plasma Etching 11.4 High Pressure Plasma Etching 11.5 Ion Milling 11.6 Reactive Ion Etching 11.7 Damage in Reactive Ion Etching** 11.8 High Density Plasma (HDP) Etching 11.9 Liftoff 11.10 Summary Problems References PART IV. UNIT PROCESSES 3: THIN FILMS Chapter 12. Physical Deposition: Evaporation and Sputtering 12.1 Phase Diagrams: Sublimation and Evaporation* 12.2 Deposition Rates 12.3 Step Coverage 12.4 Evaporator Systems: Crucible Heating Techniques 12.5 Multicomponent Films 12.6 An Introduction to Sputtering 12.7 Physics of Sputtering* 12.8 Deposition Rate: Sputter Yield 12.9 High Density Plasma Sputtering 12.10 Morphology and Step Coverage 12.11 Sputtering Methods 12.12 Sputtering of Specific Materials 12.13 Stress in Deposited Layers 12.14 Summary Problems References Chapter 13. Chemical Vapor Deposition 13.1 A Simple CVD System for the Deposition of Silicon 13.2 Chemical Equilibrium and the Law of Mass Action* 13.3 Gas Flow and Boundary Layers* 13.4 Evaluation of the Simple CVD System 13.5 Atmospheric CVD of Dielectrics 13.6 Low Pressure CVD of Dielectrics and Semiconductors in Hot Wall Systems 13.7 Plasma-enhanced CVD of Dielectrics 13.8 Metal CVD** 13.9 Atomic Layer Deposition 13.10 Electroplating Copper 13.11 Summary Problems References Chapter 14. Epitaxial Growth 14.1 Wafer Cleaning and Native Oxide Removal 14.2 The Thermodynamics of Vapor Phase Growth 14.3 Surface Reactions 14.4 Dopant Incorporation 14.5 Defects in Epitaxial Growth 14.6 Selective Growth* 14.7 Halide Transport GaAs Vapor Phase Epitaxy 14.8 Incommensurate and Strained Layer Heteroepitaxy 14.9 Metal Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD) 14.10 Advanced Silicon Vapor Phase Epitaxial Growth Techniques 14.11 Molecular Beam Epitaxy Technology 14.12 BCF Theory** 14.13 Gas Source MBE and Chemical Beam Epitaxy** 14.14 Summary Problems References PART V. PROCESS INTEGRATION Chapter 15. Device Isolation, Contacts, and Metallization 15.1 Junction and Oxide Isolation 15.2 LOCOS Methods 15.3 Trench Isolation 15.4 Silicon-on-Insulator Isolation Techniques 15.5 Semi-insulating Substrates 15.6 Schottky Contacts 15.7 Implanted Ohmic Contacts 15.8 Alloyed Contacts 15.9 Multilevel Metallization 15.10 Planarization and Advanced Interconnect 15.11 Summary Problems References Chapter 16. CMOS Technologies 16.1 Basic Long-Channel Device Behavior 16.2 Early MOS Technologies 16.3 The Basic 3-µm Technology 16.4 Device Scaling 16.5 Hot Carrier Effects and Drain Engineering 16.6 Latchup 16.7 Shallow Source/Drains and Tailored Channel Doping 16.8 The Universal Curve and Advanced CMOS 16.9 A Nanoscale CMOS Process16.10 Nonplanar CMOS16.11 Summary Problems References Chapter 17. Other Transistor Technologies 17.1 Basic MESFET Operation 17.2 Basic MESFET Technology 17.3 Digital Technologies 17.4 MMIC Technologies 17.5 MODFETs 17.6 Review of Bipolar Devices: Ideal and Quasi-ideal Behavior 17.7 Performance of BJTs 17.8 Early Bipolar Processes 17.9 Advanced Bipolar Processes 17.10 BiCMOS 17.11 Thin Film Transistors 17.12 Summary Problems References Chapter 18. Optoelectronic and Solar Technologies 18.1 Optoelectronic Devices Overview 18.2 Direct-Gap Inorganic LEDs 18.3 Polymer/Organic Light-Emitting Diodes 18.4 Lasers 18.5 Photovoltaic Devices Overview18.6 Silicon Based Photovoltaic Device Fabrication18.7 Other Photovoltaic Technologies18.8 Summary References Chapter 19. MEMS 19.1 Fundamentals of Mechanics 19.2 Stress in Thin Films 19.3 Mechanical-to-Electrical Transduction 19.4 Mechanics of Common MEMS Devices 19.5 Bulk Micromachining Etching Techniques 19.6 Bulk Micromachining Process Flow19.7 Surface Micromachining Basics 19.8 Surface Micromachining Process Flow 19.9 MEMS Actuators19.10 High Aspect Ratio Microsystems Technology (HARMST) 19.11 Microfluidics19.12 Summary Problems References Appendix I. Acronyms and Common Symbols Appendix II. Properties of Selected Semiconductor Materials Appendix III. Physical Constants Appendix IV. Conversion Factors Appendix V. Some Properties of the Error Function Appendix VI. F Values Index

This is one of the best texts in the field. It provides the most complete coverage of fabrication techniques.