Exploitation Conservation Preservation

Susan Lynn Cutter is a geographer and disaster researcher who works at the University of South Carolina, where she is a Carolina Distinguished Professor of Geography and director of the Hazards and Vulnerability Research Institute. She is the author or editor of many books on disasters and disaster recovery. William H. Renwick is the author of Exploitation Conservation Preservation: A Geographic Perspective on Natural Resource Use, 4th Edition, published by Wiley.

• Preface1 Natural Resources: Thoughts, Words, and Deeds 1What is a Natural Resource? 1Resource Cognition and Value 1Kinds of Resources 4Limits to Resource Classification 5Conserving Resources: What Does It Mean? 5ISSUE 1.1: Two Contrasting Views of Natural Resource Management 6Environmental Ethics 8Environmental Justice 8What Values Do You Bring to the Natural Resources Debate? 8Nature, Economics, and The Politics of Natural Resource Use 9The Systems Approach 10General Outline of the Book 11References and Additional Reading 12Study Questions 132 Economics of Natural Resources 14Introduction 14Economics and the Use of Resources 15Characteristics of Natural Resources 15Pricing Systems 17Economic Systems 17Supply and Demand 18Market Imperfections 18Determining Resource Value: Quantifying the Intangibles 19Benefit-Cost Analysis 19ISSUE 2.1: European Integration and the Environment: EEA and EIONET 20Quantifying Value 21ISSUE 2.2: What Is the Value of a Human Life? 22Management and Allocation of Resources 24Ownership 24Social Costs 27Economics of the Individual Firm 28Business and the Environment: Recent Trends 29Diversification and Multinational Corporations 29ISSUE 2.3: The Value of Nature 30The Greening of Business 32Deregulation 33Conclusions 33References and Additional Reading 34Study Questions 353 Environmental History, Politics, and Decision- Making 30Introduction 36Natural Resource Use: A Historical Perspective 36Development of Natural Resource Policy 37U.S. Environmental Policy 37International Policy 45ISSUE: 3.1: In Fairness to All: Agenda 21and Environmental Equity 48Current Natural Resource Policy 49How Decisions Are Made 50Resource Decision-Making in the United States 50International Environmental Decision-Making 51ISSUE: 3.2: Politics and the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) 52The Decision-Making Process 54Organizations 54Strategies 55The Role of Public Interest 56The “New” Environmental Politics 57References and Additional Reading 58Study Questions 604 Ecologic Perspectives on Natural Resources 61Earth’s Resource Environments 61Bioregions 62Human Use of the Land 66ISSUE 4.1: What Happens When the Geography Changes? 67Energy Transfers and Material Flows 69Carbon Cycle 70ISSUE 4.2: Silent Spring versus Our Stolen Future 71Nitrogen and Phosphorus 72Hydrologic Cycle 73Food Chains 74Carrying Capacity 76The Scope of Human Impact 77The Extent of Environmental Pollution 77Human Impact on Biogeochemical Cycles 81Ecological Concepts in Resource Management 82Any Given Environment Has Finite Carrying Capacity 82Be Aware of Limiting Factors 83Minimize Disruption by Mimicking Nature 83Close the Loops 84Conclusions 85References and Additional Reading 85Study Questions 865 the Human Population 87A Brief History of Population Growth 88Basic Demographics 89Birth, Death, and Fertility 90ISSUE 5.1: AIDS and Population Growth in Africa 92Age Structure 95Migration 98Trends in Population Growth 99The Distribution of Population and Population Growth 100Regional Disparities 101Increasing Urbanization 101ISSUE 5.2: Megacities: The New Urban Demographic Transition 102Population Control Strategies 102Socioeconomic Conditions and Fertility 103Contraception and Family Planning 103Population Growth and Affluence 104Conclusions 105References and Additional Reading 105Study Questions 1066 Agriculture and Food Production 107Food Production Resources 108Crops 108Livestock 111The U.S. Agricultural Land Resource Base 112Modern American Agricultural Systems 115Natural Resources for Agricultural Production 115Soil 116Water 116ISSUE 6.1: Agriculture, CO 2 , and Climate: The Only Certainty Is Change 118Fertilizers and Pesticides 120Seed 122Labor and Machines 124ISSUE 6.2: The Digital Farmer 125Animals in the Food Production System 125Environmental Impacts of Food Production 128Soil Erosion 128Rangeland Degradation 133Agricultural Policy and Management 136Subsidies 136ISSUE 6.3: Agricultural Subsidies, Trade, and Poverty in the Developing World 136Sustainable Agriculture 138Rangeland Management 138Conclusions 140References and Additional Reading 140Study Questions 1417 Forests 142Forests as Multiple-Use Resources 142Forests as Fiber Resources 144Principles of Sustainable Forestry 144Forest Management 144ISSUE 7.1: Chipko: Grass-Roots Environmentalism or a Struggle for Economic Development? 146Forest Products Technology 148Nonfiber Uses of Forest Resources 150Habitat 150Water Resources 151ISSUE 7.2: The Pacific Lumber Saga 152Recreation 154Carbon Storage 154The Role of Fire 155Deforestation and Reforestation: Three Examples 157The Amazon Forest 157The Siberian Forest 159The U.S. Forestland 160Conclusion 166References and Additional Reading 166Study Questions 1678 Biodiversity and Habitat 168The Value of Biodiversity 168Ecological Interactions 169Potential Resources 169The Inherent Value of Species 170The Pace and Processes of Extinction 172Causes of Biodiversity Loss 175ISSUE 8.1: The Mass Extinction of Freshwater Mussels 178Conservation of Biodiversity 180Species Protection 180Habitat Conservation 183The Endangered Species Act 186ISSUE 8.2: Ecotourism: Loving Wild Places to Death 187The Convention on Biological Diversity 188Conclusions 189References and Additional Reading 190Study Questions 1929 Marine Resources: Common Property Dilemmas 193Introduction 193The Marine Environment 193Physical Properties 193ISSUE 9.1: Salmon in the Pacific Northwest 196Habitat and Biological Productivity 197Fisheries 199Fisheries Production 199Fisheries in Distress 200Minerals from the Seabed 200Energy Resources 200ISSUE 9.2: Strip Mining the Oceans 201Deep-Seabed Minerals 202Management of Marine Resources 203The Problem of Ownership 203The Law of the Sea Treaty 204Marine Pollution Problems 207Protecting Marine Ecosystems 209Example: Exploitation and Protection of Marine Mammals 212Conclusions 214References and Additional Reading 215Study Questions 21710 Water Quantity and Quality 218Water Supply and Its Variability 218Spatial Variation in Surface Supply 219Temporal Variability 222Water Supplies and Storage 222The Demand for Water 226Off-Stream Uses 227ISSUE 10.1: Water Politics in the Western United States 228In-Stream Uses 230Water Quality 232Major Water Pollutants and Their Sources 232Groundwater Pollution Problems 238Water Pollution Control 239Wastewater Treatment 239Nonpoint Pollution Control 240Pollution Prevention 241Quality, Quantity, and the Water-Supply Problem 241Relations Between Quality and Quantity 241ISSUE 10.2: Water Pollution Legislation in the United States 242ISSUE 10.3: Surf Your Watershed 244Water Quality in Developing Regions 244Conclusions 246References and Additional Reading 246Study Questions 24711 the Air Resource and Urban Air Quality 248Introduction 248Air Pollution Meteorology 248Composition and Structure of the Atmosphere 248Role of Meteorology and Topography 250Major Pollutants 252Particulate Matter (PM) 252Sulfur Dioxide (SO 2) 252Nitrogen Oxides (no X) 253Carbon Monoxide (CO) 253Ozone (O 3) and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) 253Lead (Pb) 253Urban Air Pollution: The World’s Megacities 254Monitoring Network 254Air-Quality Patterns 254Economic Develpment and Air Pollution 254Urban Air Pollution in the United States 256Air Pollution Monitoring in the United States 256ISSUE 11.1: On a Clear Day You Can See the Grand Canyon 259National Trends 259How Healthy Is the Air You Breathe? 262ISSUE 11.2: Green Days, Red Days 263Air-Quality Control and Planning 264ISSUE 11.3: Smog City, USA 264Toxins in the Air 267Indoor Air Pollution 268Conclusions 269References and Additional Reading 269Study Questions 27012 Regional and Global Atmospheric Change 271Acid Deposition 271Formation and Emissions Sources 271Geographic Extent and Effects on the Environment 275Control and Management 277Stratospheric Ozone Depletion 279Ozone-Depleting Chemicals 280The Ozone Hole Is Discovered 280Reducing ODCs: The Montreal Protocol 281ISSUE 12.1: Black Market Freon 284Global Climate Change 284The Greenhouse Effect 285Greenhouse Gases 285Impacts 287ISSUE 12.2: The Costs of Global Warming 290Greenhouse Politics and Emissions Stabilization 290Conclusions 292References and Additional Reading 293Study Questions 29413 Nonfuel Minerals 295Introduction 295Reserves and Resources 295Availability of Major Minerals 298Geology of Mineral Deposits 298Variations in Reserves and Resources 299World Reserves and Resources 299U.S. Production and Consumption 301Strategic Minerals and Stockpiling 302Mining Impacts and Policy 304Environmental Considerations 304Social Impacts 305ISSUE 13.1: The New Gold Rush: Prospecting Is Poison 306Nonfuel Minerals Policy 308Conserving Minerals: Reuse, Recovery, Recycling 308ISSUE 13.2: Living with Boom and Bust 309ISSUE 13.3: Computers as Solid Waste 311Conclusions 311References and Additional Reading 312Study Questions 31314 Energy Resources 314Energy Use in the Industrial Age 314Wood, Coal and the Industrial Revolution 315Oil and the Internal Combustion Engine 315Energy Use in the Late Twentieth Century 316Energy Sources 318Oil and Natural Gas 318Coal 323Other Fossil Fuels 327Nuclear Power 327Renewable Energy 331ISSUE 14.1: The Legacy of Chernobyl 332ISSUE 14.2: The Three Gorges Dam 336Energy Efficiency and Energy Conservation 340Energy Futures 343High-Energy Options 343Low-Energy Options 344Energy Policies for the Future 345ISSUE 14.3: Electric Energy Deregulation and the California Energy Crisis 346References and Additional Reading 348Study Questions 34915 the Transition to a Global Sustainable Society 350Limits to Growth? 350What Is Sustainable Development? 352Environmental Versus Economic Sustainability 352A Working Definition of Sustainability 353How Does Sustainability Work? 353Waste Recycling 355Waste Reduction 356Design for Reuse and Recycling 358Changing Consumption Patterns 359Science and Technology for Sustainability 360Tipping the Balance 360Individual Action 361Corporate Action 361Government Action 362Looking Forward 366References and Additional Reading 366Study Questions 367Glossary 369Index 382