Essential Oil Extraction, Scalability Concerns, and Process Intensification

Olalere Olusegun Abayomi is an experienced researcher with demonstrated multidisciplinary expertise in Chemical Engineering Science, Food Biotechnology, Bioprocess Engineering, Analytical Chemistry, Product Development and Process Optimization. He finished his PhD from the University Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia under the Department of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering. Before that he obtained his master’s degree in Industrial and Production Engineering from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. He had his first degree in Chemical Engineering from the Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria. Abiola Ezekiel Taiwo is a Chemical Engineer, Lecturer, and Researcher, a recipient of the National Research Foundation (NRF) and The World Academy of Science (TWAS) African Renaissance Doctoral Fellowship grant at Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa between 2016-2019. He is currently a Research Fellow at the Faculty of Engineering, Mangosuthu University of Technology, Durban, South Africa. His research areas of specialization and interests are Artificial Intelligence, Bioprocessing, Data Science, Food Science, and Nutritional Studies, Modeling and Simulation, Process Optimization, and Renewable Energy. Bernardo Castro Dominguez is an Assistant Professor (Tenured) in Chemical Engineering and lead of the Smart Process Engineering Lab at the University of Bath (UK). His research has focused on the integration of digital technologies for materials discovery and process design and optimization. He was recipient of the prestigious Monbukagakusho Scholarship to pursue his PhD studies at the University of Tokyo (Japan) in the area of Chemical Systems Engineering. He holds a BSc and MSc in Chemical Engineering from the University of Utah (US).

• ContentsAbout the Editors xiList of Contributors xiiiPreface xvAcknowledgments xviiChapter 1 Essential Oil’s Current Market Value and Demand 1Abiola Ezekiel Taiwo , Olalere Olusegun Abayomi ,Paul Musonge , Anthony Okoji and Chiazor Faustina Jisieike1.1 Introduction 11.2 Essential Oil’s Market Size and Predictions 11.3 Essential Oil Market Focus and InternationalOil Players 31.3.1 Method of Extraction Insights 31.4 Current Essential Oil Market Dynamicsand Challenges 41.5 Consumer Demand, Quality Measure, andRegulatory Bodies in Essential Oil Market 41.5.1 Consumer Health and Wellness 41.5.2 Quality Measure in Essential Oil Market 51.5.3 Regulatory Hurdles 51.6 Conclusion 6References 6Chapter 2 Azeotropic Distillation: Unlocking the Potential of EssentialOil Extraction 8Naadhira Seedat , Vizelle Naidoo and Rishen Roopchund2.1 Introduction 82.1.1 Definition and Significance of AzeotropicDistillation in Essential Oil Extraction 82.2 Brief Overview of Historical Backgrounds 92.3 Historical Evolution of Essential Oil Extraction 102.3.1 Ancient Methods of Essential Oil Extraction 102.3.2 Transition to More Advanced DistillationTechniques 102.3.3 Traditional Azeotropic DistillationTechniques 122.4 Case Studies Highlighting the Application ofHybrid Techniques 272.4.1 Efficiency, Yield, and Quality Considerations 272.4.2 Environmental and Economic Implications 282.5 Future Prospects and Innovations 322.5.1 Ongoing Research and Development inAzeotropic Distillation 322.5.2 Potential Advancements and Improvements 322.5.3 The Role of Azeotropic Distillation in theFuture of Essential Oil Extraction 332.6 Conclusion 34References 35Chapter 3 Soxhlet Solvent Extraction of Phytoconstituents 40Samuel Olugbenga Olunusi and Nor Hanuni Ramli3.1 Introduction 403.1.1 Background and Significance 403.2 Objectives of the Chapter 413.3 Overview of Essential Oils 413.4 Brief History of SE 423.5 Principles of SE 423.5.1 Theory of SE 423.5.2 Working Principle 423.6 Advantages and Limitations 443.7 Essential Oil Extraction Process 453.8 Selection of Plant Material 453.9 Pretreatment of Raw Materials 453.10 Selection of Solvents 463.11 Detailed Extraction Procedure 463.11.1 Loading the Extractor 463.11.2 Siphoning and Condensation 493.11.3 Solvent Recovery 503.12 Factors Affecting Extraction Efficiency 503.13 Safety Considerations 523.14 Types of Soxhlet Apparatus 523.14.1 Traditional Glass Soxhlet Apparatus 523.14.2 Modern SE Systems 533.15 Comparison and Selection Based on Literaturesand Applications 553.16 Applications of SE in Essential Oil Production 553.16.1 Case Studies and Examples 553.16.2 Comparison with Other Extraction Methods 563.17 Analysis and Characterization of ExtractedEssential Oils 593.17.1 Quality Control Methods 593.17.2 Analytical Techniques 593.17.3 Aromatogram and Chemical Composition 603.18 Yield Enhancement and Optimization 613.18.1 Yield Improvement Strategies 613.18.2 Optimization Techniques 623.19 Experimental Design in SE 633.19.1 Sample Preparation, Essential Oil Production,and Analysis 633.19.2 Statistical Analysis Using RSM 633.20 Environmental and Sustainability Considerations 633.20.1 Solvent Selection and Waste Management 643.20.2 Green SE Practices 643.21 Challenges and Future Trends of SE 653.21.1 Current Challenges in SE 663.21.2 Emerging Technologies and Innovations 663.22 Future Prospects 673.23 Summary of Key Points 673.24 Importance of SE in Essential Oil Production 693.25 Detailed Experimental Protocols 693.26 Safety Guidelines 693.27 Conclusion 70References 70Chapter 4 Pulsed Electric Field Extraction of Essential Oils 75Olawale P. Olatidoye4.1 Introduction to Essential Oils and Extraction Methods 754.2 Sources of Natural Essential Oils 774.3 Constituents of Essential Oil 784.4 Methods of Producing Essential Oils 784.5 Importance of Essential Oils in Various Industry 794.5.1 Anticancer Mechanism of Essential Oils 794.5.2 Essential Oil as an Antioxidant Agent:Antioxidant Properties of Essential Oil 804.5.3 Essential Oil as an Antidiabetic Agent 814.5.4 Antimicrobial Application 824.5.5 Pesticidal Applications of Essential Oils 834.5.6 Essential Oil’s Biological Activities 834.6 Overview of Traditional Extraction Methods 844.6.1 The Need for Innovative ExtractionTechniques 844.6.2 Basic Principle of PEF‐Assisted Extraction 864.6.3 Basic System Components of PEFTechnology 874.6.4 PEF Treatment Chamber Design 894.6.5 Factors Affecting Pulsed Electric Technology 904.7 PEF-Assisted Extraction 924.7.1 Application of PEF in Food Processing 934.7.2 Application of PEF in Drying 944.7.3 Application of PEF in Food Freezing 944.7.4 PEF in Fruit and Vegetable Processing 954.7.5 PEF-Treated Milk and Milk Products 954.7.6 PEF Meat and Poultry Products 964.8 Limitation/Problems and Challenges of PETTechnology 964.8.1 Future Directions 974.9 Conclusion 97References 98Chapter 5 Mechanochemically Assisted Extraction of Essential Oil 106Jacky S. Bouanga Boudiomboa , Banele Vatsha andOlalere Olusegun Abayomi5.1 Introduction 1065.2 History of Mechanochemistry 1075.3 Extraction Mechanism of MCAE 1105.3.1 Homogenization 1115.3.2 Cell Fragmentation 1115.3.3 Mechanochemical Reactions 1125.4 Mechanochemical Methods and Instrumentations 1125.4.1 Mechanochemical Methods 1125.5 Parameters of MCAE 1155.5.1 Sample Preparation 1155.5.2 Type of Raw Materials and Their Particle Size 1165.5.3 Quantity of Raw Material in the Mill 1175.5.4 The Solid Reagent 1175.5.5 Milling Time 1185.5.6 Extraction Time 1185.5.7 Extraction Temperature 1195.5.8 pH of Extraction 1195.5.9 Choice of Solvents 1195.5.10 Liquid/Solid Ratio 1195.6 Practical Application of MCAE in Essential OilExtraction/Derivatives and Other Compounds 1205.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of MCAE andFuture Outlook 1235.8 Conclusion 126References 126Chapter 6 Microwave-Assisted Extraction of Essential Oil 132Chiazor Faustina Jisieike , Maduka Augustine Nwufo ,Abiola Ezekiel Taiwo , Paul Musonge andIfeyinwa Obiora-Dimson6.1 Introduction 1326.2 Mechanism of MW Heating 1346.2.1 Working Principle of MAE 1356.2.2 Designs of MAE Reactors 1356.3 Advantages and Limitations of MAE 1366.4 Advances in MAE Techniques 1386.4.1 MW-Assisted Hydro-Distillation 1396.4.2 Ultrasonic MW-Assisted Extraction 1416.4.3 MW Steam Distillation 1426.4.4 MW Hydrodiffusion and Gravity 1436.4.5 Solvent-Free MW Extraction 1456.4.6 Compressed Air MW Distillation 1476.4.7 Pressurized SFME 1476.5 Variables Affecting MAE Efficiency 1476.5.1 MW Power 1486.5.2 Sample Characteristics 1496.5.3 Extraction Time 1496.5.4 Solvent Selection 1516.6 Economy, Energy, and Environmental Implicationsof MAE 1526.7 Future Prospects 1536.8 Conclusion 154References 154Chapter 7 Microwave-Assisted Extraction: A Green Approach toObtaining Essential Oils 159Rupesh Kaushik , Harjinder Kaur , Ab Waheed Wani ,Ajay Saroha , Sanjeev Kumar and Sapna Jarial7.1 Introduction 1597.2 Essentials of MAEs 1607.2.1 Principles and Workings of MAE 1607.2.2 MAE System Configuration andInstrumentation 1617.2.3 MAE Systems Intermediary Alterations 1617.3 Chemistry, Extraction, and Uses of Essential Oilsand Aromas 1627.4 Techniques for Extracting Essential Oils and Aroma 1647.4.1 Microwave Compressed Air Distillation 1647.4.2 Hydro-distillation by Microwave 1647.4.3 Microwave Extraction Without Solvent 1667.4.4 Microwave Hydrodiffusion and Gravity 1697.4.5 Microwave-Assisted Distillation 1727.4.6 Pressurised MAE 1727.4.7 Subcritical and SFE with MicrowaveAssistance 1737.4.8 Enzymatic Extraction with MicrowaveAssistance 1747.5 Scalability Issues 1757.5.1 Cost, Energy, and Environmental Issues 1757.6 Industrial Applications 1757.7 Conclusion and Prospects 175References 176Chapter 8 Nutraceutical Constituents and Properties andApplications of Essential Oil 181Anamika Chauhan8.1 Introduction 1818.2 Definition and Significance of Essential Oils 1828.3 Emerging Interest in Essential Oils as Nutraceuticals 1838.4 Properties of Essential Oils 1868.5 Applications of Essential Oils as Nutraceuticals 1888.5.1 Food Preservation and Flavouring 1888.5.2 Inhibition of Food-borne Pathogens 1918.6 Aromatherapy 1918.7 Benefits of Essential Oils as Nutraceuticals 1928.7.1 Health Benefits 1928.7.2 Potential Therapeutic Uses 1938.8 Conclusion 1948.8.1 Summary of the Importance of Essential Oilsas Nutraceuticals 1958.8.2 Need for Further Research and Optimizationin Nutraceutical Formulations 195References 196Index 203