Environmental Ethics

David R. Keller is Professor of Philosophy and Director of the Center for the Study of Ethics at Utah Valley University. He is co-editor of The Philosophy of Ecology: From Science to Synthesis (with Frank Golley, 2000), and co-author of Ethics in Action (with Peggy Connolly, Becky Cox-White, and Martin G. Leever, Wiley-Blackwell, 2009), a case-based approach to introducing ethics and environmental issues.

• Preface xiList of Sources xiiiIntroduction: What is Environmental Ethics? 1Part I Why Study Environmental Ethics? 25George Sessions Emily Brady John Granrose Frederick Ferré J Baird Callicott Warwick Fox Eugene C Hargrove Ian Smith Isis Brook Holmes Rolston III Clare Palmer Kristin Shrader-Frechette Victoria Davion Greta Gaard Peter Singer James P Sterba Michael E Zimmerman Bryan G Norton Anthony Weston David Rothenberg Contributors to Part I 53Part II What Is Anthropocentrism? 57Introduction 591 Humans as Moral Ends 63Thomas Aquinas2 The Mastery of Nature 65Francis Bacon3 Nonhumans as Machines 69René Descartes4 Mechanistic Metaphysics 72Isaac Newton5 The Amoral Status of Nature 73John Stuart Mill6 Nature as Economic Resource 77John Locke7 Indirect Duties to Nonhumans 82Immanuel Kant8 In Defense of Anthropocentrism 83Wilfred Beckerman and Joanna PasekPart III What Is Nonanthropocentrism? 89Introduction 919 Walking 93Henry David Thoreau10 The Wild Parks and Forest Reservations of the West and Hetch Hetchy Valley 96John Muir11 Is There a Need for a New, an Environmental, Ethic? 98Richard (Routley) Sylvan12 Attitudes to Nature 103John Passmore13 Should Trees Have Standing? Toward Legal Rights for Natural Objects 110Christopher D. Stone14 The Varieties of Intrinsic Value 120John O’Neill15 Value in Nature and the Nature of Value 130Holmes Rolston iii16 The End of Anthropocentrism? 137Mary Midgley17 Is the Crown of Creation a Dunce Cap? 143Chip WardPart IV What Is the Scope of Moral Considerability? 147Introduction 149A Individualism (Polycentrism) 154Hierarchical Biocentrism 15418 Persons in Nature: Toward an Applicable and Unified Environmental Ethics 154Frederick FerréPsychocentrism 16119 Animals as Subjects-of-a-Life 161Tom Regan20 All Animals are Equal 169Peter SingerEgalitarian Biocentrism 17521 The Ethics of Respect for Nature 175Paul W. Taylor22 Kantians and Utilitarians and the Moral Status of Nonhuman Life 182James P. SterbaB Holism (Ecocentrism) 19323 The Land Ethic 193Aldo Leopold24 The Conceptual Foundations of the Land Ethic 201J. Baird Callicott25 Gaia As Seen Through the Atmosphere 211James E. LovelockC General Ethics 21326 Developing a General Ethics (with Particular Reference to the Built, or Human-Constructed,Environment) 213Warwick FoxPart V What Are the Prominent Alternatives to Grounding Environmental Ethics in Axiology? 221Introduction 223A Environmental Psychologism 23027 The Shallow and the Deep Ecology Movement 230Arne Naess28 The Heart of Deep Ecology 235Andrew McLaughlin29 The Deep Ecological Movement: Some Philosophical Aspects 240Arne Naess30 Transpersonal Ecology 245Warwick FoxB Environmental Virtue Ethics 25231 Environmental Virtue Ethics 252Ronald SandlerC continental Environmental Ethics 25732 On Environmental Philosophy and Continental Thought 257Steven VogelD Political Environmental Ethics 268Social Ecology 26833 What Is Social Ecology? 268Murray Bookchin34 Socialism and Ecology 275James O’ConnorEcological Feminism 28135 The Power and the Promise of Ecological Feminism 281Karen J. Warren36 Feminism and the Philosophy of Nature 291Carolyn Merchant37 Nature, Self, and Gender: Feminism, Environmental Philosophy, and the Critique of Rationalism300Val PlumwoodE Environmental Pragmatism 31138 Beyond Intrinsic Value: Pragmatism in Environmental Ethics 311Anthony Weston39 Methodological Pragmatism, Pluralism, and Environmental Ethics 318Andrew LightF Direct Action 32740 Earth First! 327Dave ForemanThe Ethics of Ecological Sabotage: An Exchange 33341 Ecological Sabotage: Pranks or Terrorism? 333Eugene Hargrove42 Earth First! and The Monkey Wrench Gang 334Edward Abbey43 More on Earth First! and The Monkey Wrench Gang 335Dave Foreman44 Editor’s Response 336Eugene HargrovePart VI What Are the Connections Between Realism, Relativism, Technology, And Environmental Ethics? 337Introduction 339A Subjectivist Environmental Ethics 34245 Meta-Ethics and Environmental Ethics 342Robert ElliotB The Social Construction of Nature 35246 How To Construe Nature: Environmental Ethics and the Interpretation of Nature 352Roger J. H. King47 The Trouble With Wilderness 359William CrononC Ecological Realism 36248 Virtually Hunting Reality in the Forests of Simulacra 362Paul ShepardD Environmental Ethics and the Philosophy of Technology 36849 Technology and the Limits of Nature 368David RothenbergPart VII What Are the Connections Between Ecological Science and Environmental Ethics? 377Introduction 37950 Ecology – A Subversive Subject 380Paul B. Sears51 What is Conservation Biology? 384Michael E. Soulé52 Environmental Ethics and Ecological Science 392Mark Sagoff53 The Metaphysical Implications of Ecology 400J. Baird Callicott54 The Ends of the World as We Know Them 409Jared DiamondPart VIII What Are Some Ethical Dimensions Of Environmental Public Policy? 413Introduction 415A The Population/Poverty Debate 42255 An Essay on the Principle of Population 422Thomas Robert Malthus56 Impact of Population Growth 426Paul R. Ehrlich and John P. Holdren57 The Ecological Necessity of Confronting the Problem of Human Overpopulation 434Garrett Hardin58 How Poverty Breeds Overpopulation 443Barry Commoner59 More People, Greater Wealth, More Resources, Healthier Environment 447Julian L. Simon60 Population: Delusion and Reality 454Amartya Sen61 A Special Moment in History 469Bill McKibbenB Industrial Agriculture 47662 Nature as the Measure for a Sustainable Agriculture 476Wes Jackson63 Putting Food Production in Context: Toward a Postmechanistic Agricultural Ethic 481David R. Keller and E. Charles BrummerC Socioeconomic Environmental Justice 49164 Environmental Justice for All 491Robert D. Bullard65 Just Garbage 501Peter S. WenzD Environmental Ethics and Economic Policy 50966 A Declaration of Sustainability 509Paul Hawken67 The Steady-State Economy 516Herman E. Daly68 Making Capitalism Sustainable 525John Elkington69 The Ignorance Argument: What Must We Know to be Fair to the Future? 534Bryan Norton70 Environmental Justice and Intergenerational Debt 545Clark WolfE Globalization 55171 The Environmental Limits to Globalization 551David EhrenfeldPart IX What Is the Future of Environmental Ethics? 55972 The Future of Environmental Ethics 561Holmes Rolston IIIBibliography 575

"Overall, Environmental Ethics: the big questions is an essential text for anyone looking to get to grips with key thinkers and their contributions to this new and burgeoning domain of ethics. Whilst challenging at times, the variety of papers in terms of both inter-disciplinary and difficulty is wide, allowing readers to effectively engage irrespective of background. Further, the layout is clear and general binding and page quality high to ensure this can remain an indispensable reference text for the future." (The Guardian, 26 November 2013)"Overall, Environmental Ethics: the big questions is an essential text for anyone looking to get to grips with key thinkers and their contributions to this new and burgeoning domain of ethics. Whilst challenging at times, the variety of papers in terms of both inter-disciplinary and difficulty is wide, allowing readers to effectively engage irrespective of background. Further, the layout is clear and general binding and page quality high to ensure this can remain an indispensable reference text for many years to come." (Economics & Philosophy, 1 November 2013)"The major strength of the book is the fact that it evolved from a classroom course on environmental ethics. The different texts are selected, put together and introduced by an experienced teacher. As such, the selection of text has already proven successful and instructive. The editor has put an enormous amount of effort into selecting the right texts, which took him, according to the preface, over four years." (Ethical Perspectives, 2011)