Energy Storage in Electric Power Grids

Benoît ROBYNS is Research Director at the École des Hautes Etudes d'Ingénieur (HEI) in Lille, France. He is the head of the "Power Systems" team at the Laboratory of Electrotechnics and Power Electronics of Lille (L2EP).Bruno FRANÇOIS is Professor at the École Centrale of Lille, France. He is a member of the "Power Systems" team at the Laboratory of Electrotechnics and Power Electronics of Lille (L2EP).Gauthier DELILLE is Research Engineer at Electricité de France R&D in Clamart, France.Christophe SAUDEMONT is Professor at the École des Hautes Etudes d'Ingénieur (HEI) of Lille, France. He is a member of the "Power Systems" team at the Laboratory of Electrotechnics and Power Electronics of Lille (L2EP).

• FOREWORD xiINTRODUCTION xiiiCHAPTER 1. ISSUES IN ELECTRICAL ENERGY STORAGE 11.1. Difficulties of storing electrical energy 11.2. Why store electrical energy? 31.3. Value enhancement of storage in electrical grids 61.4. Storage management 91.5. Bibliography 13CHAPTER 2. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN ENERGY STORAGE 172.1. Introduction 172.2. Storage technologies 172.3. Characteristics of a storage system 192.3.1. Energy storage capacity 192.3.2. Maximum power and time constant 202.3.3. Energy losses and efficiency 202.3.4. Aging 212.3.5. Costs 212.3.6. Energy and specific power 222.3.7. Response time 232.3.8. Gray energy 242.3.9. State of energy 242.3.10. Other characteristics 252.4. Hydraulic storage 262.4.1. Principle of hydraulic storage 262.4.2. Exercise: Lac Noir station 272.5. Compressed-air storage 322.5.1. Principle of compressed-air storage 322.5.2. First- and second-generation compressed-air storage 332.5.3. Adiabatic compressed-air storage 342.5.4. Air storage 352.5.5. Hydropneumatic storage 362.6. Thermal storage 382.6.1. Sensitive-heat storage 382.6.2. Latent-heat storage 392.7. Chemical storage 402.7.1. Electrochemical storage 402.7.2. Hydrogen storage 452.8. Kinetic storage 472.9. Electrostatic storage 482.10. Electromagnetic storage 492.11. Compared performances of storage technologies 512.12. Bibliography 52CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS AND VALUES OF ENERGY STORAGE IN POWER SYSTEMS  553.1. Introduction 553.2. Introduction to power systems and their operation 593.2.1. Generation plants 603.2.2. Electric grids 653.2.3. Demand 683.2.4. Some basics of the operation of power systems 693.3. Services that can be provided by storage 843.3.1. Introduction 843.3.2. Services required for connection to the transmission grid 853.3.3. Potential additional services provided to a transmission system operator 883.3.4. Potential services provided by storage to a distribution system operator 913.3.5. Services for a centralized generation owner 1073.3.6. Services for a renewable decentralized producer 1083.3.7. Services for consumers 1183.3.8. Benefits from market activities 1243.4. Example of the contribution of storage to the treatment of congestion events 1273.4.1. Indicator of state of charge of grid 1273.4.2. Evolution scenario for electric grid 1283.4.3. Treatment of congestion events in Brittany 1283.5. Example of contribution of storage to dynamic support of frequency control in an island grid 1313.5.1. Context and potential interest of this service 1313.5.2. What is under-frequency load shedding? 1313.5.3. Technical specifications of dynamic support 1323.5.4. Method used for detailed study of dynamic support 1353.5.5. Stage 1: theoretical approach 1353.5.6. Stage 2: dynamic simulations 1413.5.7. Stage 3: experimental laboratory implementation 1423.5.8. Economic value making 1443.5.9. Conclusion 1453.6. General conclusion 1453.7. Bibliography 146CHAPTER 4. INTRODUCTION TO FUZZY LOGIC AND APPLICATION TO THE MANAGEMENT OF KINETIC ENERGY STORAGE IN A HYBRID WIND-DIESEL SYSTEM 1534.1. Introduction 1534.2. Introduction to fuzzy logic 1544.2.1. Principle of fuzzy reasoning 1544.2.2. Fuzzy logic and Boolean logic 1554.2.3. Stages of a fuzzy supervisor 1604.2.4. Example of fuzzy reasoning 1644.3. Wind-kinetic energy storage combination on an isolated site with a diesel generator 1684.3.1. Introduction 1684.3.2. Energy management strategy 1704.3.3. Fuzzy logic supervisor 1714.3.4. Results of simulation with fuzzy supervisor 1744.3.5. Results of simulation with simple filtering 1764.4. Conclusion 1794.5. Bibliography 179CHAPTER 5. SUPERVISOR CONSTRUCTION METHODOLOGY FOR A WINDPOWER SOURCE COMBINED WITH STORAGE 1815.1. Introduction 1815.2. Energetic system studied 1825.3. Supervisor development methodology 1835.4. Specifications 1845.4.1. Objectives 1845.4.2. Limitations 1845.4.3. Means of action 1855.5. Supervisor structure 1865.5.1. Input values 1865.5.2. Output values 1875.5.3. Supervisor development tools 1875.6. Identification of various operating states: functional graph 1915.6.1. Graph of level N1 1925.6.2. Graph of level N1.1 1935.6.3. Graph of level N1.2 1945.6.4. Graph of level N1.3 1945.7. Membership functions 1955.8. Operational graph 1995.8.1. Graph of level N1 2005.8.2. Graph of level N1.1 2005.8.3. Graph of level N1.2 2015.8.4. Graph of level N1.3 2015.9. Fuzzy rules 2025.10. Experimental validation 2035.10.1. Implantation of supervisor 2035.10.2. Experimental configuration 2045.10.3. Results and analyses 2075.11. Conclusion 2125.12. Bibliography 212CHAPTER 6. DESIGN OF A HYBRID MULTISOURCE/MULTISTORAGE SUPERVISOR 2156.1. Introduction 2156.2. Methodology for the construction of a supervisor for a hybrid source incorporating windpower 2176.2.1. Determination of system specifications 2186.2.2. Structure of supervisor 2206.2.3. Determination of functional graphs 2236.2.4. Determination of membership functions 2276.2.5. Determination of operational graphs 2316.2.6. Extraction of fuzzy laws 2336.3. Compared performance of different variants of hybrid source 2346.3.1. Characteristics of simulated system 2346.3.2. Simulations of different hybrid source variants 2376.3.3. Comparison of performance of different hybrid sources by means of indicators 2486.4. Conclusion 2496.5. Appendices 2496.5.1. Range of output value variations 2496.5.2. Fuzzy rules 2516.6. Bibliography 253CHAPTER 7. MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMIC ENHANCEMENT OF ADIABATIC COMPRESSED-AIR ENERGY STORAGE INCORPORATED INTO A POWER GRID 2557.1. Introduction 2557.2. Services provided by storage 2577.2.1. Storage planning 2577.2.2. Frequency control 2577.2.3. Congestion management 2587.2.4. Guarantee of variable renewable production 2587.3. Supervision strategy 2597.3.1. Methodology 2597.3.2. Objectives, constraints and means of actions 2607.3.3. Supervisor structure 2607.3.4. Determination of functional graphs 2627.3.5. Determination of membership functions 2677.3.6. Determination of operational graphs 2707.3.7. Extraction of fuzzy rules 2707.3.8. Indicators 2707.4. Economic value of services 2717.4.1. Purchase/sale action 2727.4.2. Frequency control billing 2737.4.3. Billing of additional services 2737.5. Application 2747.5.1. Test grid 2747.5.2. Interest of the contribution of storage to ancillary services 2757.5.3. Interest of fuzzy supervisor compared to a Boolean supervisor 2797.6. Conclusion 2817.7. Acknowledgments 2827.8. Bibliography 282INDEX 285