Energy, Entropy and Engines

Sanjeev Chandra is a Professor in the Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering at the University of Toronto, which he joined in 1990 after completing his PhD from Cornell University. He teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in thermodynamics and heat transfer. He has been a visiting professor at universities in Germany, France and Korea. Professor Chandra is known internationally for his research that spans the areas of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, heat transfer, combustion and materials science. Professor Chandra has been awarded the Jules Stachiewicz medal for Heat Transfer by the Canadian Society for Mechanical Engineering and the Brockhouse Canada Prize for Interdisciplinary Research by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, He is a Fellow of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers and the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

• Preface xiiAbout the Companion website xiv1 Introduction: A Brief History of Thermodynamics 11.1 What is Thermodynamics? 11.2 Steam Engines 21.3 Heat Engines 71.4 Heat, Work and Energy 81.5 Energy and the First Law of Thermodynamics 111.6 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 131.7 Entropy 15Further Reading 172 Concepts and Definitions 182.1 Fundamental Concepts from Newtonian Mechanics 182.1.1 Length 192.1.2 Mass 192.1.3 Time 192.2 Derived Quantities: Velocity and Acceleration 192.3 Postulates: Newton’s Laws 212.4 Mechanical Work and Energy 232.4.1 Potential Energy 252.4.2 Kinetic Energy 272.5 Thermodynamic Systems 292.5.1 Closed System 302.5.2 Open System 302.5.3 Isolated System 302.6 Thermodynamic Properties 312.6.1 Path Functions 322.6.2 Intensive and Extensive Properties 332.7 Steady State 352.8 Equilibrium 352.8.1 Mechanical Equilibrium 372.8.2 Thermal Equilibrium 372.8.3 Phase Equilibrium 372.9 State and Process 382.10 Quasi]Equilibrium Process 392.11 Cycle 412.12 Solving Problems in Thermodynamics 432.13 Significant Digits and Decimal Places 43Further Reading 44Summary 44Problems 463 Thermodynamic System Properties 493.1 Describing a Thermodynamic System 493.2 States of Pure Substances 503.3 Mass and Volume 513.4 Pressure 543.5 Temperature 563.6 Ideal Gas Equation 573.7 Absolute Temperature Scale 583.8 Modelling Ideal Gases 623.9 Internal Energy 643.10 Properties of Liquids and Solids 66Further Reading 66Summary 67Problems 684 Energy and the First Law of Thermodynamics 724.1 Energy 724.2 Forms of Energy 734.3 Energy Transfer 754.4 Heat 774.5 Work 784.5.1 Boundary Work 784.5.2 Flow Work 864.5.3 Shaft Work 874.5.4 Spring Work 894.5.5 Electrical Work 904.6 The First Law for a Control Mass 914.7 Enthalpy 954.8 Specific Heats 974.9 Specific Heats of Ideal Gases 994.10 Which should you use, cp or cv? 1024.11 Ideal Gas Tables 1064.12 Specific Heats of Liquids and Solids 1084.13 Steady Mass Flow Through a Control Volume 1104.14 The First Law for Steady Mass Flow Through a Control Volume 1124.15 Steady Flow Devices 1134.15.1 Turbines and Compressors 1134.15.2 Pumps 1154.15.3 Nozzles and Diffusers 1164.16 Transient Analysis for Control Volumes 118Further Reading 120Summary 120Problems 1235 Entropy 1335.1 Converting Heat to Work 1335.2 A New Extensive Property: Entropy 1355.3 Second Law of Thermodynamics 1385.4 Reversible and Irreversible Processes 1395.5 State Postulate 1435.6 Equilibrium in a Gas 1445.7 Equilibrium – A Simple Example 1495.8 Molecular Definition of Entropy 1555.9 Third Law of Thermodynamics 1575.10 Production of Entropy 1575.11 Heat and Work: A Microscopic View 1595.12 Order and Uncertainty 161Further Reading 162Summary 162Problems 1636 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 1686.1 The Postulates of Classical Thermodynamics 1686.2 Thermal Equilibrium and Temperature 1696.3 Mechanical Equilibrium and Pressure 1716.4 Gibbs Equation 1736.5 Entropy Changes in Solids and Liquids 1746.6 Entropy Changes in Ideal Gases 1756.6.1 Constant Specific Heats 1756.6.2 Ideal Gas Tables 1776.7 Isentropic Processes in Ideal Gases 1806.7.1 Constant Specific Heats 1806.7.2 Ideal Gas Tables 1836.8 Reversible Heat Transfer 1856.9 T]S Diagrams 1876.10 Entropy Balance for a Control Mass 1876.11 Entropy Balance for a Control Volume 1906.12 Isentropic Steady Flow Devices 1926.13 Isentropic Efficiencies 1946.13.1 Isentropic Turbine Efficiency 1946.13.2 Isentropic Nozzle Efficiency 1956.13.3 Isentropic Pump and Compressor Efficiency 1966.14 Exergy 1986.14.1 Exergy of a Control Mass 1996.14.2 Exergy of a Control Volume 2016.15 Bernoulli’s Equation 204Further Reading 206Summary 206Problems 2107 Phase Equilibrium 2187.1 Liquid Vapour Mixtures 2187.2 Phase Change 2197.3 Gibbs Energy and Chemical Potential 2217.4 Phase Equilibrium 2237.5 Evaluating the Chemical Potential 2257.6 Clausius–Clapyeron Equation 2257.7 Liquid–Solid and Vapour–Solid Equilibria 2297.8 Phase Change on P]v and T]v Diagrams 2317.9 Quality 2347.10 Property Tables 2357.11 Van der Waals Equation of State 2477.12 Compressibility Factor 2517.13 Other Equations of State 2527.13.1 Redlich–Kwong Equation of State 2527.13.2 Virial Equation of State 253Further Reading 255Summary 255Problems 2578 Ideal Heat Engines and Refrigerators 2678.1 Heat Engines 2678.2 Perpetual Motion Machines 2688.3 Carnot Engine 2698.3.1 Two]Phase Carnot Engine 2738.3.2 Single Phase Carnot Engine 2768.4 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps 2788.4.1 Carnot Refrigerator 2798.4.2 Carnot Heat Pump 2838.5 Carnot Principles 285Further Reading 288Summary 288Problems 2899 Vapour Power and Refrigeration Cycles 2949.1 Rankine Cycle 2949.2 Rankine Cycle with Superheat and Reheat 2999.3 Rankine Cycle with Regeneration 3059.3.1 Open Feedwater Heater 3059.3.2 Closed Feedwater Heater 3109.4 Vapour Refrigeration Cycle 312Further Reading 316Summary 316Problems 31810 Gas Power Cycles 32410.1 Internal Combustion Engines 32410.2 Otto Cycle 32510.3 Diesel Cycle 33110.4 Gas Turbines 33410.5 Brayton Cycle 33610.6 Brayton Cycle with Regeneration, Reheat and Intercooling 34010.6.1 Regeneration 34010.6.2 Reheat 34210.6.3 Intercooling 344Further Reading 345Summary 345Problems 346Appendices 351Appendix 1: Properties of Gases 351Appendix 2: Properties of Solids 352Appendix 3: Properties of Liquids 353Appendix 4: Specific Heats of Gases 354Appendix 5: Polynomial Relations for Ideal Gas Specific Heat as a Function of Temperature 355Appendix 6: Critical Properties of Fluids 356Appendix 7: Ideal Gas Tables for Air 357Appendix 8: Properties of Water 360Appendix 9: Properties of R]134a 373Appendix 10: Generalised Compressibility 379Index 381