Encapsulation and Controlled Release Technologies in Food Systems

Dr Jamileh M. Lakkis has more than 20 years’ experience in the food, dietary supplements and consumer products industries. She has been very active in promoting and implementing microencapsulation and controlled release technologies in these industries.

• List of contributors, xiiiForeword, xviiPreface to second edition, xixPreface to first edition, xxi1 Introduction, 1Jamileh M. LakkisWall-forming materials, 2Core materials, 2Release triggers, 2Payload, 2Current approaches to encapsulation and controlled release, 3Entrapment in carbohydrate matrices, 3Complexation into cyclodextrins, 6Encapsulation in microporous matrices: physical adsorption, 6Encapsulation in fats and waxes, 7Encapsulation in emulsions and micellar systems, 7Encapsulation in coacervated polymers, 8Encapsulation using supercritical fluids, 9Encapsulation into hydrogel matrices, 9Encapsulation using flow-focusing technology, 10Overview of controlled-release systems, 11Matrix systems, 11Reservoir systems, 12Combination systems, 12Release mechanisms, 13References, 132 Encapsulation of edible active compounds using supercritical fluids, 16Salima Varona, Ángel Martín and María José CoceroSupercritical fluid technology, 16Properties of supercritical fluids, 16Implementation of processes using SCFs: Basic considerations, 17Current industrial applications, 18Particle formation processes, 19SCFs as solvents, 19SCFs as antisolvents, 20SCFs as solutes, 22SCFs as propellants, 22Products, 24Single compound products, 24Co-precipitation and encapsulation processes: Carrier materials, 25Encapsulation of solid active compounds, 26Encapsulation of liquid active compounds, 27Case study: Encapsulation of lavandin essential oil, 29Encapsulation in water-soluble carriers, 30Encapsulation in water-insoluble carriers, 32Impregnation, 33Comparison with alternative encapsulation technologies, 34References, 363 Encapsulation by complex coacervation, 41Curt ThiesIntroductory comments, 41Complex coacervation background and terminology, 42Biopolymers and complex coacervation, 43Biopolymer structure and properties, 43Milk and vegetable protein denaturation, 48Reproducibility issues, 49Concluding biopolymer comments, 51Stabilization and solidification of complex coacervate capsule shells, 52Overview, 52mTGase treatment of complex coacervate capsule shells, 53Overview of current encapsulation protocols, 59Concluding comments, 71References, 714 Lyophilized liposomes for food applications: Fundamentals, processes, and potential applications, 78Taise Toniazzo and Samantha C. PinhoIntroduction, 78Liposomes: Structure, production methods, and applications in foods, 79Formulation factors affecting liposome integrity after lyophilization, 84Influence of the lyophilization process parameters and technological factors on the lyophilized product, 89Concluding remarks and future perspectives, 90References, 915 Microencapsulation of probiotics, 97Thierry F. Vandamme, Gildas K. Gbassi, Trinh Lan Nguyen and Xiang LiIntroduction to probiotics, 97Definitions, applications, and advantages of probiotics, 97Introduction to microencapsulation, 99Definition, 99Purpose of microencapsulation, 100Structural details of microcapsules, 100Materials used in the microencapsulation of probiotics, 102Factors affecting the microencapsulation effectiveness of probiotics, 114Methods used in microencapsulating probiotics, 115Extrusion technique for microencapsulation, 115Emulsion technique, 115Use of drying technology for microencapsulating Probiotics, 117Interfacial polymerization and coacervation, 119Co-crystallization method, 120Molecular inclusion, 120Centrifugal extrusion technique, 120Conclusion and prospects, 121References, 1216 Emulsions as delivery systems in foods, 129Ingrid A.M. Appelqvist, Matt Golding, Rob Vreeker and Nicolaas Jan ZuidamIntroduction, 129Stabilization and destabilization of emulsion systems, 130Emulsion stabilization, 130Formulation design for food emulsions, 135Release triggers for emulsions, 142Delivery of water-soluble food actives via emulsions, 143Water-in-oil emulsions for controlling water-soluble actives, 143Effect of O/W emulsions on taste release and perception, 143Double emulsions for controlling water-soluble actives, 145Delivery of hydrophobic food actives via O/W emulsions, 149Lipophilic health ingredients in O/W emulsions, 149Aroma release from O/W emulsions, 149Structured emulsions in hydrogels for controlled release of aromas, 153Delivery of dietary fats as O/W emulsions and their protection against oxidation, 155Future trends, 159Nature-made emulsions, 159Monodispersed emulsions, 163References, 1647 Improved solubilization and bioavailability of nutraceuticals in nanosized self-assembled liquid vehicles, 173Nissim Garti, Eli Pinthus, Abraham Aserin and Aviram SpernathIntroduction, 173U-Type microemulsions, swollen micelles, and progressive and full dilution, 177Solubilization of nonsoluble nutraceuticals, 179Lycopene, 180Phytosterols, 185Lutein and lutein ester, 187Oxidative stability, 191Bioavailability, 192CoQ10 and Improved Bioavailability, 192Water binding, 195Conclusions, 197References, 1988 Encapsulation and controlled release in bakery applications, 204Jamileh M. LakkisIntroduction, 204Encapsulation technologies for bakery applications, 205Hot melt particle coating technology, 205Spray congealing/chilling, 207High pressure congealing (beta process), 209Film-forming materials, 210Waxes, 210Resins, 212Glycol polymers, 212Fats and glycerides, 212Lauric acid group, 212Palmitic acid group, 213Oleic/linoleic acid group, 213Characteristics of wax and fat coating materials, 213Ideal properties of encapsulated particles for bakery applications, 216Good barrier properties, 216Mechanical strength, 216Surface morphology, 217Adhesion and cohesiveness, 217Particle size distribution, 217Film thickness, 217Melting properties, 217Applications of encapsulated actives in bakery applications, 218Leavening systems, 218Encapsulated sweeteners, 222Encapsulated antimicrobial agents, 224Encapsulated minor ingredients, 229Flavors, 229Encapsulated nutrients, 229References, 2309 Encapsulation and controlled release applications in confectionery and oral care products, 236Jamileh M. LakkisIntroduction, 236Physiology and organization of the oral area, 237Permeability and barrier functions of the oral cavity, 239Membranes – physiology and transport routes (Plasma and Epithelial membranes), 239Plasma membranes, 239Epithelial membranes, 240Oral mucosa, 240Saliva, 242Keratinization, 242Polarity, 243pH, 243Transport mechanisms across membranes, 244Delivery sites in the oral cavity, 245Advantages of the oral route for drug delivery, 247Disadvantages of oral route delivery, 248Dosage formulation, 249Physico-chemical properties of the active and dosage, 249Confectionery products as delivery systems, 249Chewing gum as a delivery system, 249Typical gum composition and manufacture, 250Chewing gums for delivering flavors and non-medicated actives, 252Effect of saliva flow rate on flavor release, 254Effect of non-sugar sweeteners (Polyols), 255Effect of sensates on flavor release from chewing gum, 256Chewing gum for delivering cosmetic and medicated actives, 257Oral and dental health (Antimicrobials, Dental Caries Prevention, Xerostomia), 257Antimicrobials, 257Chewing gums for delivering actives for minor pains, diabetes and weight management, 262Chewing gum for delivering caffeine, 262Chewing gums for delivering nicotine, 263Chewing gum for delivering acetyl salicylic acid, 265Chewing gum for delivering insulin, 265Lozenges as delivery systems, 266Lozenges for delivering flavors and sensates, 267Lozenges for delivering relief from cough and sore throat, 268Lozenges as delivery systems for oral care, 269Lozenges for delivering nicotine (Smoking Cessation), 270Oral thin films, 271Seamless capsules, 274References, 27610 Assessing bioavailability and nutritional value of microencapsulated minerals, 289Diego Moretti and Michael ZimmermannIntroduction, 289Assessing bioavailability and nutritional value of minerals for human use, 291In vitro methods, 293Animal studies, 295Studies in human subjects using tracers, 297Intervention studies in humans, 300Special considerations in evaluating the bioavailability of encapsulated minerals, 303Solubility of the coating material in the GI tract, 303Coating material as a functional ingredient, 303Outlook and research questions, 304References, 30411 Effects of microencapsulation on bioavailability of fish oil omega-3 fatty acids, 309Philip Christophersen, Mingshi Yang and Huiling MuIntroduction, 309Chemistry of omega-3 fatty acids, 310Functional foods enriched with omega-3 fatty acids, 312Bioavailability of omega-3 fatty acids, 312Effect of chemical structure, 314Effect of microencapsulation on bioavailability of omega-3 fatty acids, 315Conclusions, 324References, 32512 Innovative applications of micro and nanoencapsulation in food packaging, 333Murat Ozdemir and Tansel KemerliIntroduction, 333Antimicrobial food packaging materials and controlled release applications, 335Antimicrobials-organic acids, peptides, essential oils, 344Antimicrobial essential oils, 347Metals and metal oxides, 348Insect and rodent repellents, 351Scented fragrance inserts and aroma-flavor releasing systems, 353Encapsulated pigments and fillers, 357Encapsulated inks and time-temperature indicators, 362Future perspective, 368References, 369Index, 379