Emerging Materials for Photodegradation and Environmental Remediation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics

Laxman Singh is Head and Associate Professor at the Department of Chemistry, Siddharth University, Siddharthnagar, India, and has research and teaching experience in Materials Chemistry. He has published more than 60 research articles in well-reputed international science journals.Sunil Kumar is Senior Assistant Professor and Head of the Department of Chemistry at L.N.T. College, B.R.A. Bihar University, Muzaffarpur, India, and has seven years of teaching experience. His research interests include synthesis and processing of functional polyurethanes, redox polymers, gel polymer electrolytes, nanomaterials, composites and many others.

• Foreword xvYoungil LEEPreface xviiLaxman SINGH and Sunil KUMARAcknowledgments xxiLaxman SINGH and Sunil KUMARChapter 1 Micro- and Nano-Plastic Pollution: Present Status on Environmental Issues and Photocatalytic Degradation 1Monika VERMA, Yashaswini and Sujata KUNDAN1.1 Introduction 21.2 MPs and NPs: Sources, impact and health hazards 41.2.1 Micro-plastics 41.3 Nano-plastics 61.3.1 Sources and environmental risks 61.4 Impact of Covid-19 on plastic pollution 71.5 Methods for plastic degradation 81.5.1 Current methods for plastic degradation 81.5.2 Emerging solutions for plastic degradation 81.6 Conclusion 121.7 Future directions for plastic pollution control 121.8 References 12Chapter 2 Metal Oxide-based Smart Materials for Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano Plastics 19Roopam GAUR and Satyendra SINGH2.1 Introduction 192.2 Metal oxide photocatalysts and their characteristics 212.2.1 TiO2 242.2.2 ZnO 272.2.3 CuO 292.2.4 NiO 302.3 Conclusion and future prospectives 302.4 Acknowledgments 312.5 References 31Chapter 3 WO 3-based Smart Material for Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastic 37Rachana SAIN and Sudarshan SARKAR3.1 Overview of micro- and nano-plastics 373.2 Photocatalytic degradation mechanism 423.3 Tungsten trioxide (WO3) 473.3.1 (WO3)-based smart materials 483.3.2 Synthesis of WO3 -based smart material 493.3.3 A few WO3 -based smart materials 513.4 Applications and future scope 523.5 References 54Chapter 4 The Chemistry of Carbon Nanotubes in Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano Plastic 61Manish KUMAR and Sunil KUMAR4.1 Introduction 614.2 Micro- and nano-plastic 634.3 Carbon nanotube materials 654.4 Coating of carbon nanotube as photocatalytic degradation materials 664.4.1 TiO2 coating 664.4.2 ZnO coating 684.5 Functionalized carbon nanotube as photocatalytic degradation materials 694.5.1 Single wall carbon nanotube 704.5.2 Multiwall carbon nanotube 714.5.3 Noncovalent endohedral and exohedral functionalization with surfactants 734.5.4 Graphene-functionalized carbon nanotube 744.6 Hetero atom doping of carbon nanotube as photocatalytic degradation material 754.7 Conclusion 764.8 References 76Chapter 5 Environmental Justifications of MXene towards Photocatalytic Capture and Conversion of Micro- and Nano-Plastic 81Sweta SINGH and Abhijeet KUMAR5.1 Introduction 825.2 Nanomaterial catalyzed methods for the degradation of micro- and nano-plastics 865.3 Photocatalytic degradation of micro- and nano-plastics 875.4 MXene: a nanomaterial with diverse applications 915.5 Important properties of MXenes 935.6 Application of MXene as photocatalyst 955.7 Application of MXene-based materials for the degradation of organic pollutants 955.8 MXene as photocatalyst for degradation of MPs and NPs 965.9 Conclusion 975.10 References 97Chapter 6 Metal–Organic Framework based on Functional Materials for Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastic 105Vinita, Madhu TIWARI, Pravesh Kumar YADAV, Arun Pratap VERMA, Chandrakala SINGH and Sudhakar PANDEY6.1 Introduction 1056.2 Historical background and discovery of metal–organic frameworks 1066.3 Bonding in metal–organic frameworks 1076.4 Dimensionality of metal–organic frameworks 1086.5 Methods for the synthesis of metal–organic frameworks 1096.5.1 Ultrasonic synthesis 1116.5.2 Electrochemical synthesis 1116.5.3 Mechanochemical synthesis 1116.5.4 Microwave synthesis 1126.6 Properties of metal–organic frameworks 1126.7 Micro- and nano-plastics 1136.7.1 Photocatalytic degradation of micro- and nano-plastics 1146.7.2 Mechanism of photocatalytic degradation 1156.7.3 Changes in micro-/nano-plastics morphology in photocatalytic degradation 1176.8 Factors influencing photocatalytic degradation efficiency 1176.9 Role of micromotors in photocatalytic degradation of MPs/NPs 1186.10 Photocatalytic water purification: removal of micro- and nano-plastics from water 1196.10.1 Photocatalytic degradation of polyethylene terephthalate nano-plastics 1216.10.2 Photodisintegration of emerging pollutants 1236.11 References 125Chapter 7 Carbon-based Materials for Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-plastics 133Chandrakala SINGH and Devjani ADHIKARI7.1 Introduction 1337.2 Classification of carbon-based nanomaterials 1357.2.1 Carbon nanotubes 1357.2.2 Single-walled carbon nanotubes 1367.2.3 Double-walled carbon nanotubes 1377.2.4 Multi-walled carbon nanotubes 1377.2.5 Fullerene 1387.2.6 Nanodiamonds 1387.2.7 Carbon dots 1397.2.8 Graphene 1397.2.9 Graphene nanoribbons 1407.2.10 Graphene quantum dots 1407.3 An overview of photocatalysts’ breakdown of MPs and NPs 1457.4 Carbonaceous nanomaterials 1477.4.1 Graphene, RGO (reduced graphene oxide) and GO 1477.4.2 Carbon nanotubes 1477.4.3 Nano-graphite 1487.4 Conclusion 1497.5 References 149Chapter 8 Graphene-based Materials for Photodegradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics 159Geeta SINGH and Preeti GUPTA8.1 Introduction 1608.1.1 Overview of micro-plastics 1608.1.2 Overview of nano-plastics 1618.1.3 Environmental impact of micro- and nano-plastics 1628.1.4 Better alternatives to plastics 1638.1.5 Status of plastic recycling in India with other countries 1648.2 Graphene-based materials 1658.3 Structure and characteristics of graphene-based materials 1668.4 Photodegradation and graphene-based materials 1708.5 Application of GMBs in removal/degradation/remediation of different pollutants 1718.6 Photodegradation of micro- and nano-plastics by graphene-based materials 1728.7 Challenges and future perspectives 1738.8 Environmental fate of graphene-based materials 1738.9 Conclusion 1748.10 References 175Chapter 9 2D Nanomaterials for Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics 183Thakur Prasad YADAV and Kalpana AWASTHI9.1 Introduction 1849.2 2D materials 1859.2.1 Graphene family 1859.2.2 Transition metal dichalcogenides and MXenes 1879.2.3 Phosphorene 1889.2.4 Oxides and hydroxide materials 1899.3 Synthesis of 2D materials 1899.4 Properties and applications of 2D materials 1919.5 Application of 2D materials in photocatalytic degradation 1929.6 Micro- and nano-plastics 1949.7 Micro- and nano-plastics identification 1969.7.1 Microscopy: stereo microscopy and dissecting microscopy 1969.7.2 Fluorescence microscopy 1969.7.3 Transmission electron microscopy 1979.7.4 Scanning electron microscopy 1989.7.5 Atomic force microscopy 1999.7.6 FTIR spectroscopy 2009.7.7 Raman spectroscopy 2019.7.8 Thermal analysis 2019.7.9 New approaches and new identification strategies 2039.7.10 Impact of micro- and nano-plastics on human health 2039.8 Photocatalytic degradation of micro- and nano-plastic 2049.9 Photocatalytic degradation of micro- and nano-plastic through 2D materials 2049.10 Summary and conclusion 2069.11 Acknowledgments 2069.12 References 206Chapter 10 Hybrid 2D-Smart Materials in Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics 215Niranjan PATRA, Gudiguntla RAVI, Muddada Jaya SURYA and Akil AHMAD10.1 Introduction 21510.2 2D materials: properties and functionalities 21710.2.1 Electronic properties 21710.2.2 Optical properties 21810.2.3 Mechanical properties 21810.2.4 Thermal properties 21910.2.5 Chemical properties and functionalization 21910.2.6 Synergistic effects in hybrid 2D materials 22010.3 Hybrid 2D-smart materials: design and synthesis 22010.3.1 Synthesis techniques 22110.3.2 Examples of hybrid 2D-smart materials 22210.4 Mechanisms of photocatalytic degradation of micro- and nano-plastics 22210.4.1 Initiation of degradation 22310.4.2 Role of photocatalyst morphology and composition 22410.4.3 Pathways of degradation 22410.4.4 Environmental factors and degradation efficiency 22510.5 Degradation of micro-plastics in marine environments 22510.5.1 Photocatalytic degradation of nano-plastics in wastewater treatment 22810.5.2 Integration of photocatalytic coatings in water purification systems 22910.5.3 Photocatalytic degradation of micro-plastics in agricultural soils 22910.6 Challenges, limitations and future scopes 23010.7 Conclusions 23210.8 References 232Chapter 11 Design and Structural Modification of Advanced Biomaterials for PhotocatalyticDegradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics 241Nisha MANDLOI, Poonam SHARMA, Aakanksha MEWAL and Ajit Kumar VARMA11.1 Introduction 24211.1.1 Plastic pollution: a global challenge 24211.1.2 Photocatalytic degradation: a green approach 24411.2 Smart biomaterials: overview and selection criteria 24911.2.1 Definition and characteristics of smart biomaterials 24911.2.2 Selection criteria for smart biomaterials 25311.3 Design principles for enhanced photocatalysis 25411.3.1 Tailoring optical properties 25511.3.2 Surface functionalization for targeted activity 25811.4 Structural modifications for improved efficiency 26111.4.1 Nanocomposite formation 26211.4.2 Porosity enhancement 26311.5 Case studies and applications 26511.5.1 Titanium dioxide nanomaterials 26511.5.2 Graphene-based smart biomaterials 26711.6 Challenges and future perspectives 27111.6.1 Overcoming biocompatibility concerns 27211.6.2 Scalability and cost-effectiveness 27311.6.3 Integration with other remediation techniques 27411.7 Conclusion 27611.8 References 276Chapter 12 Nanocomposites: Sustainable Resources for Photodegradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics281Nisha SHANKHWAR, Pinki SINGH, Jewel THOMAS and Satyendra SINGH12.1 Introduction 28212.1.1 Addressing environmental challenges with nanocomposites 28212.2 Photocatalytic degradation of micro- and nano-plastics 28312.3 Nanocomposites in environmental remediation 28412.3.1 Understanding nanocomposites 28412.3.2 Enhanced mechanical, thermal, electrical and optical properties 28512.3.3 Nanocomposite composition and structure 28512.4 Synthesis of nanocomposites 28612.4.1 Synthesis techniques 28712.4.2 Optimization of synthesis parameters 28712.5 Photodegradation mechanisms 28812.5.1 Mechanism of photocatalytic reaction 28912.5.2 Energy absorption and electron–hole pair generation 28912.5.3 Charge aggregation and surface migration 28912.5.4 Redox reactions at the interface 28912.5.5 Oxygen evolution reaction (OER) in an oxygen-rich atmosphere 28912.5.6 Hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) in an inert atmosphere 29012.6 Nanocomposites for micro- and nano-plastic degradation 29012.6.1 Titanium dioxide and modified composites 29112.6.2 Zinc oxide and modified composites 29212.6.3 Zirconium dioxide and modified composites 29312.6.4 Tungsten trioxide and modified composites 29312.6.5 Carbon nitride-based composites 29312.6.6 Perovskite-like materials 29312.7 Photodegradation efficiency 29312.7.1 Light absorption 29412.7.2 Electron–hole pair generation 29512.7.3 Reactive oxygen species formation 29512.7.4 Interaction with micro- and nano-plastics 29512.7.5 Mineralization 29512.8 Applications and case studies 29512.8.1. Nanocomposites for micro- and nano-plastic pollution control 29612.8.2 Application in photodegradation 29612.9 Challenges and considerations/future directions 29712.9.1 Future vistas and emerging trends 29712.9.2 The power of cross-disciplinary collaboration 29712.10 Conclusion 29812.11 Acknowledgments 29812.12 References 298Chapter 13 Fabrication of Plant/Biogenic-based Metallic Nanomaterials for Degradation of Micro- andNano-Plastics 301Preeti GUPTA and Geeta SINGH13.1 Introduction 30113.2 Environment and micro- and nano-plastics 30413.3 Role of nanomaterials in micro- and nano-plastics 30613.4 Plant/biogenic metallic nanomaterials 30713.4.1 Characterization technique involved in nanomaterials 30913.4.2 Properties of nanomaterials 30913.5 Degradation of micro- and nano-plastics 31013.6 Conclusion and future prospectives 31213.7 References 313Chapter 14 Efficiency of Hybrid Materials for Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics319Vaishali GUPTA and Satyendra SINGH14.1 Introduction 32014.2 Behavior of micro- and nano-plastics 32314.3 Objective of the chapter 32414.4 Global plastic production 32414.5 Photocatalytic degradation 32514.6 Hybrid smart materials for degradation of microand nano-plastics 32714.7 Conclusions and suggestions for the future 33514.8 References 335Chapter 15 Surface Modifications of BiVO 4 Semiconductor Materials for Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastic 341Nikita YADAV, Vaishali GUPTA and Ojasvi SAINI15.1 Introduction to micro- and nano-plastic pollution 34215.1.1 Overview of micro- and nano-plastic pollution: a growing environmental concern 34215.1.2 Definition and classification 34315.1.3 Occurrence and distribution of micro- and nano-plastic in environmental matrices 34815.2 Semiconductor photocatalysis in environmental remediation: fundamentals and principles 34915.2.1 Mechanisms of photocatalytic degradation 35015.2.2 Factors influencing photocatalytic efficiency 35215.2.3 Role of semiconductors in environmental clean-up 35315.3 Role of BiVO 4 in photocatalytic degradation of micro- and nano-plastics 35415.3.1 Introduction to BiVO 4 semiconductors 35415.3.2 Significance of BiVO 4 in photocatalysis 35515.3.3 Advantages and limitations of BiVO 4 for this application 35615.4 Surface modifications of BiVO₄ for enhanced catalytic activity 35815.4.1 Overview of surface modification techniques 35815.4.2 Chemical modifications: metal and nonmetal doping and co-catalyst deposition 35915.4.3 Physical modifications 36015.4.4 Hybrid and composite materials 36115.4.5 Advances in surface modification technologies 36215.5 Applications and challenges in real-world scenarios 36415.5.1 Practical applications in micro- and nano-plastic degradation 36415.6 Conclusion 36615.7 References 367List of Authors 371Index 375