Electrokinetic Remediation for Environmental Security and Sustainability

Alexandra B. Ribeiro, is Associate Professor in Habilitation in Environmental Engineering at NOVA School of Sciences and Technology at NOVA University Lisbon in Portugal. She received her doctorate in Environmental Engineering at the Technical University of Denmark.Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad is Emeritus Professor in the School of Life Sciences at the University of Hyderabad in India. He has published over 216 papers in scholarly journals and edited 34 books. He received his doctorate in Botany from Lucknow University, India in 1979. Based on an independent study by Stanford University scientists in 2020, he figured in the top 2% of scientists from India, ranked number 1 in Environmental Sciences (116 in world).

• Preface xixContributors xxiii1 An Overview of the Modeling of Electrokinetic Remediation 1Maria Villen-Guzman, Maria del Mar Cerrillo-Gonzalez, Juan Manuel Paz-Garcia, and Jose Miguel Rodriguez-Maroto1.1 Introduction 11.2 Reactive Transport 31.2.1 One-Dimensional Electromigration Model 31.2.2 One-Dimensional Electromigration and Electroosmosis Model 71.2.3 One-Dimensional Electrodialytic Model 91.2.4 One-Dimensional Electroremediation Model Using Nernst-Planck-Poisson 161.3 Chemical Equilibrium 181.4 Models for the Future 241.4.1 Combining Chemical Equilibrium and Chemical Reaction Kinetics 241.4.2 Multiscale Models 261.4.3 Two- and Three-Dimensional Models 291.4.4 Multiphysics Modeling 29Acknowledgments 30References 302 Basic Electrochemistry Tools in Environmental Applications 35Chanchal Kumar Mitra and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad2.1 Introduction 352.1.1 Electrochemical Half-Cells 372.1.2 Electrode Potential 382.1.3 Electrical Double Layer 402.1.4 Electrochemical Processes 412.1.4.1 Polarization (Overvoltage) 412.1.4.2 Slow Chemical Reactions 422.2 Basic Bioelectrochemistry and Applications 442.3 Industrial Electrochemistry and the Environment 442.3.1 Isolation and Purification of Important Metals 442.3.2 Production of Important Chemical Intermediates by Electrochemistry 452.4 Electrokinetic Phenomena 452.4.1 Electroosmosis in Bioremediation 462.5 Electrophoresis and Its Application in Bioremediation 472.6 Biosensors in Environmental Monitoring 482.6.1 What Are Biosensors? 482.6.2 Biosensors as Environmental Monitors 492.7 Electrochemical Systems as Energy Sources 522.8 Conclusions 55References 553 Combined Use of Remediation Technologies with Electrokinetics 61Helena I. Gomes and Erika B. Bustos3.1 Introduction 613.2 Biological Processes 623.2.1 Electrobioremediation 623.2.2 Electro-Phytoremediation 643.3 Permeable Reactive Barriers 673.4 Advanced Oxidation Processes 673.4.1 Electrokinetics-Enhanced In Situ Chemical Oxidation (EK-ISCO) 673.4.2 Electro-Fenton 703.5 In Situ Chemical Reduction (ISCR) 713.6 Challenges for Upscaling 713.7 Concluding Remarks 73References 734 The Electrokinetic Recovery of Tungsten and Removal of Arsenic from Mining Secondary Resources: The Case of the Panasqueira Mine 85Joana Almeida, Paulina Faria, António Santos Silva, Eduardo P. Mateus, and Alexandra B. Ribeiro4.1 Introduction 854.2 Tungsten Mining Resources: The Panasqueira Mine 864.2.1 The Development of the Industry 864.2.2 Ore Extraction Processes 884.2.3 Potential Risks 884.3 The Circular Economy of Tungsten Mining Waste 894.3.1 Panasqueira Old Slimes vs. Current Slimes 894.3.2 Tungsten Recovery 904.3.3 Building Material–Related Applications 924.4 Social, Economic, and Environmental Impacts 934.5 Final Remarks 94Acknowledgments 94References 955 Electrokinetic Remediation of Dredged Contaminated Sediments 99Kristine B. Pedersen, Ahmed Benamar, Mohamed T. Ammami, Florence Portet-Koltalo, and Gunvor M. Kirkelund5.1 Introduction 995.2 EKR Removal of Pollutants from Harbor Sediments 1015.2.1 Pollutants and Removal Efficiencies 1015.2.1.1 Metals 1025.2.1.2 Organic Pollutants and Organometallic Pollutants 1045.2.2 Influence of Experimental Settings and Sediment Properties on the Efficiency of EKR 1055.2.2.1 Enhancement of EKR – Changes in Design 1065.2.2.2 Enhancement of EKR – Chemical Agents and Surfactants 1065.2.2.3 Sediment Characteristics 1085.3 Case Studies of Enhancement Techniques 1115.4 Evaluation of the Best Available EKR Practice 1205.4.1 Energy Consumption 1205.4.2 Environmental Impacts 1225.5 Scaling Up EKR for Remediation of Polluted Harbor Sediments 1235.5.1 Results and Comments 1255.6 Future Perspectives 129References 1316 Pharmaceutically Active Compounds in Wastewater Treatment Plants: Electrochemical Advanced Oxidation as Onsite Treatment 141Ana Rita Ferreira, Paula Guedes, Eduardo P. Mateus, Alexandra B. Ribeiro, and Nazaré Couto6.1 Introduction 1416.1.1 Emerging Organic Contaminants 1416.1.2 Occurrence and Fate of EOCs 1416.1.2.1 EOCs in WWTPs 1436.1.3 Water Challenges 1446.1.4 Technologies forWastewater Treatment – Electrochemical Process 1466.2 Electrochemical Reactor for EOC Removal in WWTPs 1486.2.1 Experimental Design 1486.2.1.1 Analytical Methodology 1486.2.2 Electrokinetic Reactor Operating in a Continuous Vertical Flow Mode 1506.3 Conclusions 153Acknowledgments 153References 1537 Rare Earth Elements: Overview, General Concepts, and Recovery Techniques, Including Electrodialytic Extraction 159Nazaré Couto, Ana Rita Ferreira, Vanda Lopes, Stephen Peters, Sibel Pamukcu, and Alexandra B. Ribeiro7.1 Introduction 1597.1.1 Rare Earth Elements: Characterization, Applications, and Geo-Dependence 1597.1.2 REE Mining and Secondary Sources 1627.1.3 REE Extraction and Recovery from Secondary Resources 1637.2 Case Study 1647.3 Conclusions 166Acknowledgments 167References 1678 Hydrocarbon-Contaminated Soil in Cold Climate Conditions: Electrokinetic-Bioremediation Technology as a Remediation Strategy 173Ana Rita Ferreira, Paula Guedes, Eduardo P. Mateus, Pernille Erland Jensen, Alexandra B. Ribeiro, and Nazaré Couto8.1 Introduction 1738.1.1 Hydrocarbon Contamination 1738.1.2 Oil Spills in Arctic Environments 1748.1.3 Remediation of Petroleum-Contaminated Soil 1758.1.3.1 Electrokinetic Remediation (EKR) 1768.2 Case Study 1778.2.1 Description of the Site 1778.2.2 Soil Sampling 1788.2.3 Electrokinetic Remediation (EKR) Experiments 1788.2.4 Analytical Procedures 1798.2.4.1 Soil Characterization 1798.3 Determination of Metals and Phosphorus 1808.3.1 Results and Discussion 1808.3.1.1 Soil Characteristics 1808.3.1.2 EKR Experiments 1828.4 Conclusions 186Acknowledgments 186References 1869 Electrochemical Migration of Oil and Oil Products in Soil 191 V.A. Korolev and D.S. Nesterov9.1 Introduction 1919.2 Specific Nature of Soils Polluted by Oil and Its Products 1929.3 Influence of Mineral Composition 1939.4 Influence of Soil Dispersiveness 1959.5 Influence of Physical Soil Properties 1989.6 Influence of Physico-Chemical Soil Properties 2019.7 Influence of the InitialWater/Oil Ratio in a Soil 2039.8 Influence of the Oil Aging Process 2079.9 Influence of Oil Composition 2119.10 Conclusions 220Acknowledgments 222References 22210 Nanostructured TiO2-Based Hydrogen Evolution Reaction (HER) Electrocatalysts: A Preliminary Feasibility Study in Electrodialytic Remediation with Hydrogen Recovery 227Antonio Rubino, Joana Almeida, Catia Magro, Pier G. Schiavi, Paula Guedes, Nazare Couto, Eduardo P. Mateus, Pietro Altimari, Maria L. Astolfi, Robertino Zanoni, Alexandra B. Ribeiro, and Francesca Pagnanelli10.1 Introduction 22710.1.1 Electrokinetic Technologies: Electrodialytic Ex Situ Remediation 22810.1.2 Nanostructured TiO2 Electrocatalysts Synthesized Through Electrochemical Methods 23010.2 Case Study 23110.2.1 Aim and Scope 23110.2.2 Experimental 23210.2.2.1 TiO2 Based Electrocatalyst Synthesis and Characterization 23210.2.2.2 ED Experiments 23310.2.3 Discussion 23510.2.3.1 Blank Tests: Electrocatalysts Effectiveness toward HER 23510.2.3.2 ED Remediation for Sustainable CRMs Recovery 23710.3 Final Considerations 243Acknowledgments 244References 24411 Hydrogen Recovery in Electrodialytic-Based Technologies Applied to Environmental Contaminated Matrices 251Cátia Magro, Joana Almeida, Juan Manuel Paz-Garcia, Eduardo P. Mateus, and Alexandra B. Ribeiro11.1 Scope 25111.2 Technology Concept 25311.2.1 Potential Secondary Resources 25311.2.2 Electrodialytic Reactor 25411.2.2.1 Electrodes 25411.2.2.2 Ion-Exchange Membranes 25611.2.2.3 PEMFC System 25811.3 Economic Assessment of PEMFC Coupled with Electroremediation 26011.3.1 Scenario Analysis 26011.3.2 Hydrogen Business Model Canvas 26211.3.3 SWOT Analysis 26411.4 Final Remarks 265Acknowledgments 266References 26612 Electrokinetic-Phytoremediation of Mixed Contaminants in Soil 271Joana Dionísio, Nazaré Couto, Paula Guedes, Cristiana Gonçalves, and Alexandra B. Ribeiro12.1 Soil Contamination 27112.2 Phytoremediation 27212.3 Electroremediation 27412.3.1 EK Process Coupled with Phytoremediation 27512.3.2 EK-Assisted Bioremediation in the Treatment of Inorganic Contaminants 27712.3.3 EK-Assisted Bioremediation in the Treatment of Organic Contaminants 27812.4 Case Study of EK and Electrokinetic-Assisted Phytoremediation 27912.5 Conclusions 281Acknowledgments 282References 28213 Enhanced Electrokinetic Techniques in Soil Remediation for Removal of Heavy Metals 287Sadia Ilyas, Rajiv Ranjan Srivastava, Hyunjung Kim, and Humma Akram Cheema13.1 Introduction 28713.2 Electrokinetic Mechanism and Phenomenon 28813.3 Limitations of the Electrokinetic Remediation Process 28913.4 Need for Enhancement in the Electrokinetic Remediation Process 29013.5 Enhancement Techniques 29213.5.1 Surface Modification 29213.6 Cation-Selective Membranes 29313.7 Electro-Bioremediation 29413.8 Electro-Geochemical Oxidation 29513.9 LasagnaTM Process 29613.10 Other Potential Processes 29613.11 Summary 298Acknowledgments 299References 29914 Assessment of Soil Fertility and Microbial Activity by Direct Impact of an Electrokinetic Process on Chromium-Contaminated Soil 303Prasun Kumar Chakraborty, Prem Prakash, and Brijesh Kumar Mishra14.1 Introduction 30314.2 Experimental Section 30414.2.1 Soil Characteristics and Preparation of Contaminated Soil 30414.2.2 Electrokinetic Tests, Experimental Setup, and Procedure 30514.2.3 Testing Procedure 30614.2.4 Extraction and Analytical Methods 30614.2.5 Soil Nutrients 30614.2.6 Soil Microbial Biomass Carbon Analysis 30714.2.7 Quality Control and Quality Assurance 30714.3 Results and Discussion 30814.3.1 Electrokinetic Remediation of Chromium-Contaminated Soil 30814.3.1.1 Electrical Current Changes During the Electrokinetic Experiment 30814.3.2 pH Distribution in Soil During and After the Electrokinetic Experiment 30914.4 Removal of Cr 31014.4.1 The Distribution of Total Cr and Its Electroosmotic Flow During the Electrokinetic Experiment 31014.5 Effects of the Electrokinetic Process on Some Soil Properties 31214.5.1 Soil Organic Carbon 31214.5.2 Soil-Available Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, and Calcium 31414.5.3 Soil Microbial Biomass Carbon 31814.6 Conclusion 318References 31915 Management of Clay Properties Based on Electrokinetic Nanotechnology 323D.S. Nesterov and V.A. Korolev15.1 Introduction 32315.2 Objects of the Study 32615.3 Methods of the Study 32815.4 Results and Discussion 33015.4.1 Regulation of Soil rN 33015.4.2 Regulation of Oxidation-Reduction Potential 33215.4.3 Regulation of Soil Particle Surface-Charge Density 33215.4.4 EDL Parameter Regulation 33915.4.5 Regulation of Clay CEC 34315.4.6 Regulation of Physico-Chemical Parameters of Soils 34515.4.7 Regulation of Soil Texture and Structure 34615.4.8 Regulation of Physical Clay Properties 35215.4.9 Regulation of Soil Strength and Deformability 35315.5 Conclusions 354Acknowledgments 355Abbreviations 355References 35716 Technologies to Create Electrokinetic Protective Barriers 363D.S. Nesterov and V.A. Korolev16.1 Introduction 36316.2 Conventional Electrokinetic Barriers 36616.2.1 Cationic Contaminants 36616.2.2 Anionic Pollutants 36716.2.3 Advanced EKB Implementations 36716.2.4 Using EKBs for Soil Remediation 36816.3 Electrokinetic Barrier with Ion-Selective Membranes (IS-EKB) 36916.4 Electrokinetic Barrier Based on Geosynthetics (EKG-B) 37016.5 Bio-Electrokinetic Protective Barrier (Bio-EKB) 37116.6 Electrokinetic Permeable Reactive Barriers (EK-PRB) 37616.6.1 EK-PRBs Based on Activated Carbon 37716.6.2 EK-PRBs Based on Iron Compounds 37816.6.2.1 ZVI-Based EK-PRBs 37916.6.2.2 EK-PRBs Based on Ferric/Ferrous Compounds 38116.6.3 EK-PRBs Based on Red Mud 38216.6.4 EK-PRBs Based on Zeolites 38316.6.5 EK-PRBs Based on Clays or Modified Soils 38316.6.6 Other Materials for the Creation of EK-PRBs 38416.7 Electrokinetic Permeable Reactive Barriers to Prevent Radionuclide Contamination 39716.8 Conclusion 400Acknowledgments 401Abbreviations 401References 40317 Emerging Contaminants in Wastewater: Sensor Potential for Monitoring Electroremediation Systems 413Cátia Magro, Eduardo P. Mateus, Maria de Fátima Raposo, and Alexandra B. Ribeiro17.1 Scope 41317.2 Removal Technologies: Electroremediation Treatment 41617.3 Monitoring Tool: Electronic Tongues Devices 41717.3.1 Sensor Design 41817.3.1.1 Thin-Film Nanomaterials 41917.3.1.2 Promising Thin-Film Deposition Techniques 42017.3.1.3 Electrical Measurements: Impedance Spectroscopy 42217.3.2 Data Treatment 42417.4 Critical View on Coupling EK and Electronic Tongues 42417.5 Final Remarks 427Acknowledgments 428References 42818 Perspectives on Electrokinetic Remediation of Contaminants of Emerging Concern in Soil 433Paula Guedes, Nazaré Couto, Eduardo P. Mateus, Cristina Silva Pereira, and Alexandra B. Ribeiro18.1 Introduction 43318.1.1 Soil Pollution 43318.1.2 Contaminants of Emerging Concern 43418.2 Electrokinetic Process 43618.2.1 Removal Mechanisms 43718.2.2 Electro-Degradation Mechanisms 43918.2.3 Enhanced Bio-Degradation 44218.3 Conclusion 445Acknowledgments 446References 44619 Electrokinetic Remediation for the Removal of Organic Waste in Soil and Sediments 453S.M.P.A Koliyabandara, Chamika Siriwardhana, Sakuni M. De Silva, Janitha Walpita, and Asitha T. Cooray19.1 Introduction 45319.2 Organic Soil Pollution 45319.2.1 The Fate of Organic Soil Pollutants 45519.2.2 Biomagnification and Bioaccumulation of Soil Pollutants 45519.3 Soil Remediation Methods 45619.3.1 Physical Methods 45619.3.1.1 Capping 45619.3.1.2 Thermal Desorption 45719.3.1.3 Soil Vapor Extraction (SVE) 45819.3.1.4 Incineration 45819.3.1.5 Air Sparging 45819.3.2 Chemical Methods 45819.3.2.1 SoilWashing/Flushing 45919.3.2.2 Chemical Oxidation Remediation 45919.3.3 Bioremediation 46019.3.3.1 Microbial Remediation 46019.3.3.2 Phytoremediation 46019.4 Electrokinetic Remediation (EKR) 46119.4.1 Basic Principles of EKR 46119.4.1.1 Electrolysis of PoreWater 46219.4.1.2 Electromigration 46219.4.1.3 Electroosmosis 46419.4.1.4 Electrophoresis 46419.5 EKR for the Treatment of Soils and Sediments 46419.5.1 Enhancement Techniques Coupled with EKR 46619.5.1.1 Techniques Used to Enhance the Solubility of Contaminants 46619.5.1.2 Techniques to Control Soil pH 46619.5.1.3 Coupling with Other Remediation Techniques 46719.5.2 Facilitating Agents for PAH Removal 46819.5.2.1 Cyclodextrin-Enhanced EKR 46819.5.2.2 Surfactant-Enhanced EKR 46819.5.3 Cosolvent-Enhanced EKR 46919.5.4 Biosurfactant–Enhanced EKR 46919.6 Factors Affecting the Efficiency of Electrokinetic Remediation 47019.6.1 Effect of pH 47019.6.2 Effect of Electrolytes 47019.6.3 Effect of Soil Characteristics 47019.6.4 Effect of the Voltage Gradient 47119.7 Conclusions and Future Perspective 471Acknowledgments 471References 47220 The Integration of Electrokinetics and In Situ Chemical Oxidation Processes for the Remediation of Organically Polluted Soils 479Long Cang, Qiao Huang, Hongting Xu, and Mingzhu Zhou20.1 Introduction 47920.2 Principles Underlying EK-ISCO Remediation Technology 48020.2.1 Desorption and Migration of Organic Pollutants 48020.2.2 Oxidant Migration 48220.3 Factors that Influence EK-ISCO Technology 48420.3.1 Soil Properties 48420.3.2 Dosage and Methods Used to Add Oxidants to Soil 48520.3.3 Concentration and Aging of Organic Pollutants 48620.4 Enhanced EK-ISCO Remediation Methods 48620.4.1 Electro-Fenton Process 48620.4.2 pH Control 48720.4.3 Ion-Exchange Membranes 48820.4.4 Adding Solubilizers 48820.4.5 Electrode Activation/Electrode Thermal Activation 48920.4.6 Nanomaterial-Enhanced Methods 49020.5 Pilot/Field-Scale Studies of EK-ISCO Remediation Technologies 49020.5.1 Experimental Design 49020.5.1.1 Electrode Materials 49020.5.1.2 Configuring Electrode Settings 49120.5.1.3 Power Supply Modes 49220.5.2 Pilot Cases 49320.6 Conclusions 494Acknowledgments 494References 49521 Electrokinetic and Electrochemical Removal of Chlorinated Ethenes: Application in Low- and High-Permeability Saturated Soils 503Bente H. Hyldegaard and Lisbeth M. Ottosen21.1 Introduction 50321.1.1 Chlorinated Ethenes 50321.1.2 Low-Permeability Saturated Soils 50621.1.3 High-Permeability Saturated Soils 50721.2 Electrokinetically Enhanced Remediation in Low-Permeability Saturated Soils 50821.2.1 Electrokinetically Enhanced Bioremediation (EK-BIO) 50821.2.1.1 EK-Induced Delivery of Microbial Cultures and Electron Donors 50921.2.1.2 Current State of Development from an Applied Perspective 51021.2.2 Electrokinetically Enhanced In Situ Chemical Oxidation (EK-ISCO) 51121.2.2.1 EK-Induced Delivery of Oxidants 51221.2.2.2 Current State of Development from an Applied Perspective 51321.2.3 Electrokinetically Enhanced Permeable Reactive Barriers (EK-PRB) 51421.2.3.1 EK-Induced Mobilization of Chlorinated Ethenes 51421.2.3.2 EK-Controlled Reactivity of the Filling Material 51521.2.3.3 Current State of Development from an Applied Perspective 51521.3 Electrochemical Remediation in High-Permeability Saturated Soils 51621.3.1 Electrochemistry in Complex Environmental Settings 51721.3.2 Electrochemical Remediation in Complex Environmental Settings 51921.3.2.1 Electrochemically Induced Changes in Hydrogeochemistry 52221.3.2.2 Current State of Development from an Applied Perspective 52521.4 Summary 527References 52822 Chlorophenolic Compounds and Their Transformation Products by the Heterogeneous Fenton Process: A Review 541Cetin Kantar and Ozlem Oral22.1 Introduction 54122.2 Heterogeneous Fenton Processes 54522.2.1 Effect of Catalyst Type and Possible Reaction Mechanisms 54622.2.1.1 Iron Oxides 54722.2.1.2 Pyrite 55222.2.1.3 Zero-Valent Iron (ZVI) 55322.2.1.4 Multimetallic Iron-Based Catalysts 55522.2.1.5 Supported Iron-Based Catalyst Materials 56022.3 Factors Affecting CP Removal Efficiency in Heterogeneous Fenton Processes 56522.3.1 Effect of Catalyst Size 56522.3.2 Effect of Catalyst Dosage 56522.3.3 Effect of pH 56622.3.4 Effect of Hydrogen Peroxide Dose 56722.3.5 Effect of Organic Ligands 56822.4 Reaction By-Products 56922.5 Mode of Implementation, Reactor Configuration, and Biodegradability 57122.6 Conclusions 572References 57423 Clays and Clay Polymer Composites for Electrokinetic Remediation of Soil 587Jayasankar Janeni and Nadeesh M. Adassooriya23.1 Introduction 58723.2 Electrokinetic Remediation Technique: An Overview 58823.3 Clay Soil and Minerals 58823.4 Clay Mineral Classifications and Structure 58923.5 Layer Charge 59023.6 Active Bond Sites in Clay Minerals 59023.7 Properties of Clay Minerals 59123.8 Clay Minerals and Their Modifications 59123.9 Organoclays and Their Properties 59123.10 Factors Affecting the Mechanism of Transporting Contaminants in Clay Soils 59323.10.1 Structural Parameters 59323.10.2 Mass Transport 59323.10.3 Electrokinetic Potential (Zeta Potential) 59523.10.4 Polymeric Agent Enhanced Electrokinetic Decontamination of Clay Soils 59623.10.5 Future Perspectives 59723.11 Summary 598References 59824 Enhanced Remediation and Recovery of Metal-Contaminated Soil Using Electrokinetic Soil Flushing 603Yudha Gusti Wibowo and Bimastyaji Surya Ramadan24.1 Introduction 60324.2 Metal Contamination in Mining Areas 60424.3 Treatment of Metal-Contaminated Soil Using EKSF 60524.3.1 Soil Flushing 60524.3.2 Fundamental Equation for EK Remediation 60624.3.3 Electrokinetic Soil Flushing (EKSF) 60924.3.4 Flushing Fluid Enhanced EKSF Performance 61024.3.5 Preventing pH from Acidification 61724.3.6 Other Factors that Enhance EKSF Performance 61824.3.7 Energy Requirements and Future Perspectives 61824.4 Conclusion 620References 62025 Recent Progress on Pressure-Driven Electro-Dewatering (PED) of Contaminated Sludge 629Bimastyaji Surya Ramadan, Amelinda Dhiya Farhah, Mochtar Hadiwidodo, and Mochamad Arief Budihardjo25.1 Introduction 62925.2 Electro-Dewatering for Sludge Treatment 63025.2.1 Conventional Sludge Treatment Systems 63025.2.2 Overview of Electro-Dewatering Systems 63025.2.3 Fundamental Equations of EDWSystems 63225.3 Design Considerations for PED Systems 63625.3.1 Reducing Electrical Resistance in PED Systems 63825.3.2 Maintaining Optimum pH and Salinity 63925.3.3 Determining Sludge Characteristics and Properties 64125.3.4 Operating PED Under Constant Voltage or Current 64125.3.5 Determining Appropriate Electrodes (Anodes and Cathodes) 64225.3.6 Reducing Energy Consumption 64325.4 Future Perspectives 64425.5 Conclusion 647References 64726 Removing Ionic and Nonionic Pollutants from Soil, Sludge, and Sediment Using Ultrasound-Assisted Electrokinetic Treatment 653Bimastyaji Surya Ramadan, Marita Wulandari, Yudha Gusti Wibowo, Nurani Ikhlas, and Dimastyaji Yusron Nurseta26.1 Introduction 65326.2 Overview of Technologies 65426.2.1 Ultrasonication 65426.2.2 Electrokinetic Remediation 65626.3 Desorption and Degradation Mechanism 65926.3.1 Removing Contaminants by Ultrasonication 65926.3.2 UltrasonicWave Effect 66026.3.2.1 Cavitation 66026.3.2.2 Thermal Effect 66126.3.2.3 Chemical Effect 66126.3.2.4 Biological Effect 66226.3.3 Electrokinetic Remediation Process 66226.3.3.1 Electrolysis 66226.3.3.2 Electromigration and Electrophoresis 66426.3.3.3 Electroosmosis 66426.3.3.4 Electrooxidation/Reduction 66526.4 Ultrasonication-Assisted Electrokinetic Remediation 66626.4.1 Recent Progress in Ultrasonication-Assisted Electrokinetic Remediation (US-EK) 66626.4.2 Factors Affecting Performance 66626.4.2.1 System Parameters 66626.4.2.2 Contaminant and Environmental Parameters 66926.4.3 Future Directions 67126.5 Conclusions 671References 672Index 679